1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
|
.. highlight:: cpp
.. _arduino-bitwisecompound:
Compound bitwise and (&=), or (\|=), XOR (^=)
=============================================
The compound bitwise operators perform their calculations at the
bit level of variables. They are often used to clear and set
specific bits of a variable.
See the :ref:`bitwise math tutorial <arduino-bitwisemath>` for more
information on bitwise operators.
.. contents:: Contents
:local:
.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-and:
Compound bitwise AND (&=)
-------------------------
The compound bitwise AND operator ``&=`` is often used with a variable
and a constant to force particular bits in a variable to be zero. This
is often referred to in programming guides as "clearing" or
"resetting" bits. In a program, writing the line ``x &= y;`` is
equivalent to writing ``x = x & y;``. That is, the value of ``x``
after the line will be equal to its old value bitwise ANDed with the
value of ``y``::
x &= y; // equivalent to x = x & y;
You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type
``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an
integer variable or any :ref:`integer value
<arduino-constants-integers>` (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for ``y``.
Before doing an example of ``&=``, let's first review the Bitwise AND
(``&``) operator::
0 0 1 1 operand1
0 1 0 1 operand2
----------
0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) = result
As shown above, bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 0 become 0, while
bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 1 are left unchanged. So, if ``b``
is a ``byte`` variable, then ``b & B00000000`` equals zero, and ``b &
B11111111`` equals ``b``.
.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-binconst:
.. note:: The above uses :ref:`binary constants
<arduino-constants-integers-bin>`\ . The numbers are still the same
value in other representations, they just might not be as easy to
understand.
Normally, in C and C++ code, :ref:`hexadecimal
<arduino-constants-integers-hex>` or :ref:`octal
<arduino-constants-integers-oct>` are used when we're interested in
an integer's bits, rather than its value as a number.
While hexadecimal and octal literals might be harder to understand
at first, you should really take the time to learn them. They're
part of C, C++, and many other programming languages, while binary
constants are available only for compatibility with Arduino.
Also, ``B00000000`` is shown for clarity, but zero in any number
format is zero.
So, to clear (set to zero) bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while
leaving the rest of the variable's bits unchanged, use the compound
bitwise AND operator ``&=`` with the constant ``B11111100``
(hexadecimal ``0xFC``\ )::
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask
----------------------
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^
unchanged cleared
Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced
with the symbol ``x``\ ::
x x x x x x x x variable
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask
----------------------
x x x x x x 0 0
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^
unchanged cleared
So, using a byte variable ``b``\ , if we say::
b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA
b &= B11111100; // B11111100 == 0xFC
then we will have ::
b == B10101000; // B10101000 == 0xA8
.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-or:
Compound bitwise OR (\|=)
-------------------------
The compound bitwise OR operator ``|=`` is often used with a variable
and a constant to "set" (set to 1) particular bits in a variable. In
a program, writing the line ``x |= y;`` is equivalent to writing ``x =
x | y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` after the line will be equal to
its old value bitwise ORed with the value of ``y``::
x |= y; // equivalent to x = x | y;
You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type
``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an
integer variable or any integer value (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for
``y``. (This works the same way as :ref:`compound bitwise AND
<arduino-bitwisecompound-and>`\ , ``&=``).
Before doing an example of ``|=``, let's first review the Bitwise OR
(``|``) operator::
0 0 1 1 operand1
0 1 0 1 operand2
----------
0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) = result
Bits that are "bitwise ORed" with 0 are unchanged, while bits that are
"bitwise ORed" with 1 are set to 1. So if ``b`` is a ``byte``
variable, then ``b | B00000000`` equals ``b``, and ``b & B11111111``
equals ``B11111111`` (here we've used binary constants; see the
:ref:`note <arduino-bitwisecompound-binconst>` above).
So, to set bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while leaving the rest
of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise OR operator
(``|=``) with the constant ``B00000011`` (hexadecimal ``0x3``)::
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask
----------------------
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^
unchanged set
Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced with
the symbol ``x``::
x x x x x x x x variable
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask
----------------------
x x x x x x 1 1
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^
unchanged set
So, using a byte variable ``b``, if we say::
b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA
b |= B00000011; // B00000011 == 0x3
then we will have ::
b == B10101011; // B10101011 == 0xAB
.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-xor:
Compound bitwise XOR (\^=)
--------------------------
The compound bitwise XOR operator ``^=`` is used with a variable and a
constant to "toggle" (change 0 to 1, and 1 to 0) particular bits in a
variable. In a program, writing the line ``x ^= y;`` is equivalent to
writing ``x = x ^ y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` after the line
will be equal to its old value bitwise XORed with the value of ``y``::
x ^= y; // equivalent to x = x ^ y;
You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type
``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an
integer variable or any integer value (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for
``y``. (This works the same way as :ref:`&=
<arduino-bitwisecompound-and>` and :ref:`\|=
<arduino-bitwisecompound-or>`; in fact, these three operators all
work the same in this way).
Before doing an example of ``^=``, let's first review the Bitwise
XOR operator, ``^``::
0 0 1 1 operand1
0 1 0 1 operand2
----------
0 1 1 0 (operand1 ^ operand2) = result
One way to look at bitwise XOR is that each bit in the result is a 1
if the input bits are different, or 0 if they are the same. Another
way to think about it is that the result bit will be 1 when *exactly*
one (no more, no less) of the input bits is 1; otherwise, it will be
zero. This means that if you XOR a bit with 1, it will change (or
toggle) its value, while if you XOR a bit with 0, it stays the same.
So, to toggle bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while leaving the
rest of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise XOR operator
``^=`` with the constant ``B00000011`` (hexadecimal ``0x3``\ ; see
:ref:`note <arduino-bitwisecompound-binconst>` above)::
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask
----------------------
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^
unchanged toggled
So, using a byte variable ``b``, if we say::
b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA
b ^= B00000011; // B00000011 == 0x3
then we will have ::
b == B10101001; // B10101001 == 0xA9
See Also
--------
- :ref:`Boolean operations <arduino-boolean>` (``&&``, ``||``)
- :ref:`Bitwise operators <arduino-bitwisemath>` (``&``, ``|``, ``^``, ``~``)
.. include:: cc-attribution.txt
|