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| author | Marti Bolivar <mbolivar@mit.edu> | 2010-12-21 10:27:37 -0500 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Marti Bolivar <mbolivar@mit.edu> | 2010-12-21 10:27:37 -0500 |
| commit | c45bccad44187da27505cf5808424e709e3f54a1 (patch) | |
| tree | 18a459a50f8d0551ba046e30462c93999d982725 /docs/source/arduino | |
| parent | 84fd2532a7f23d20354ff590790b3f892cb7e7d7 (diff) | |
| parent | d5ad2a27f4e69e6cc9324331945937c983c30366 (diff) | |
| download | librambutan-c45bccad44187da27505cf5808424e709e3f54a1.tar.gz librambutan-c45bccad44187da27505cf5808424e709e3f54a1.zip | |
Merge branch 'master' into debug-serialusb.
Chose debug-serialusb version in cases of conflict.
Conflicts:
libmaple/usb/usb_callbacks.c
Diffstat (limited to 'docs/source/arduino')
97 files changed, 0 insertions, 6701 deletions
diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst b/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5d699ae..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-abs: - -abs(x) -====== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) computes the absolute value of a number. - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: the number - -Returns -------- - -**x**: if **x** is greater than or equal to 0. - -**-x**: if **x** is less than 0. - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way ``abs()`` is implemented, avoid using other -functions or causing side effects inside the brackets, as it may lead -to incorrect results :: - - abs(a++); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - a++; // use this instead - - abs(a); // keep other math outside the function diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d0fa5a1..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,134 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-analogread: - -analogRead() -============ - - -Signature ---------- - -``int analogRead(int pin);`` - - -Description ------------ - -Reads the value from the specified analog pin. The Maple board -contains a 16-channel, 12-bit analog to digital converter. This means -that it will map input voltages between 0 and 3.3 volts into integer -values between 0 and 4095. This yields a resolution between readings -of 3.3V / 4096 units, or 0.8 millivolts. However, a number of factors -interfere with getting full accuracy and precision. For more -information, see :ref:`adc`. - -Before calling analogRead() on a pin, that pin must first be -configured for analog input, using :ref:`arduino-pinMode`. - -The input range and resolution can be changed using -:ref:`arduino-analogReference`. - -It takes about 0.8 microseconds (.0000008 seconds) to read an analog -input, so the maximum sample rate using this function is approximately -1.3 million samples per second [#fsamp]_. - - -Parameters ----------- - -**pin** - - The number of the analog input pin to read from. Header pins on the - Maple with ADC functionality (marked as "AIN" on the silkscreen) - are: - - 0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28 - - Note that pins 3, 27, and 28 are not marked AIN on the silkscreen - for Maple revisions through Rev 5, however, they **do work** as - analog input pins. - -Returns -------- - -Converted input voltage as an ``int``, with value 0 to 4095, inclusive. - - -Note ----- - -If the analog input pin is not connected to anything, the value -returned by analogRead() will fluctuate based on a number of factors -(e.g. the values of the other analog inputs, how close your hand is to -the board, etc.). - - -Example -------- - - :: - - - int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer wiper (middle terminal) connected to analog pin 3 - // outside leads to ground and +3.3V - int val = 0; // variable to store the value read - - void setup() { - pinMode(analogPin, INPUT_ANALOG); - SerialUSB.begin(); - } - - void loop() { - val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin - SerialUSB.println(val); // debug value - } - - -Arduino Compatibility Note --------------------------- - -The Arduino board contains a 6 channel (8 channels on the Mini and -Nano, 16 on the Mega), 10-bit analog to digital converter. This means -that it will map input voltages between 0 and 5 volts into integer -values between 0 and 1023. This yields a resolution between readings -of: 5 volts / 1024 units or, .0049 volts (4.9 mV) per unit. On the -Arduino, the input range and resolution can be changed using their -implementation of `analogReference() -<http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogReference>`_\ . - -On the Arduino, it takes about 100 microseconds (0.0001 s) to read an -analog input, so the maximum reading rate is about 10,000 times a -second. - - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`ADC note <adc>` -- :ref:`analogReference <arduino-analogreference>` -- `(Arduino) Tutorial: Analog Input Pins <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/AnalogInputPins>`_ - - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fsamp] This is based on the current configuration of a 55.5 cycle - sample time, at 72 MHz. However, the minimum sample time *possible* - is 1.5 cycles, leading to a theoretical maximum of approximately 48 - million samples per second (of course, doing anything with the - readings also consumes cycles, so this maximum can't be reached in - practice). - - See the `STM32 Reference Manual <full-manual>`_, ยงยง11.12.4--5 - (pp. 225--226), for more information on the low-level bit twiddling - currently necessary to change the sample time. For examples of how - the ADCs are configured in libmaple, see `adc.h - <http://github.com/leaflabs/libmaple/blob/master/libmaple/adc.h>`_ - and `adc.c - <http://github.com/leaflabs/libmaple/blob/master/libmaple/adc.c>`_\ - . Be aware that changing the sample time has important - consequences related to the impedance of the device connected to - the input pin. If you want to make changes, as a minimum, you - should first read ST's application notes on `ADC modes - <stm32-adc-modes>`_ and `ADC oversampling - <stm32-adc-oversampling>`_. diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogreference.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogreference.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9a25169..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogreference.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,66 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-analogreference: - -analogReference(type) -===================== - -Description ------------ - -Configures the reference voltage used for analog input (i.e. the -value used as the top of the input range). The options are: - - - - -- DEFAULT: the default analog reference of 5 volts (on 5V Arduino - boards) or 3.3 volts (on 3.3V Arduino boards) -- INTERNAL: an built-in reference, equal to 1.1 volts on the - ATmega168 or ATmega328 and 2.56 volts on the ATmega8. -- EXTERNAL: the voltage applied to the AREF pin is used as the - reference. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -type: which type of reference to use (DEFAULT, INTERNAL, or -EXTERNAL). - - - -Returns -------- - -None. - - - -Warning -------- - -**If you're using an external reference voltage (applied to the AREF pin), you must set the analog reference to EXTERNAL before calling analogRead().** -Otherwise, you will short together the active reference voltage -(internally generated) and the AREF pin, possibly damaging the -microcontroller on your Arduino board. - - - -Alternatively, you can connect the external reference voltage to -the AREF pin through a 5K resistor, allowing you to switch between -external and internal reference voltages. Note that the resistor -will alter the voltage that gets used as the reference because -there is an internal 32K resistor on the AREF pin. The two act as a -voltage divider, so, for example, 2.5V applied through the resistor -will yield 2.5 \* 32 / (32 + 5) = ~2.2V at the AREF pin. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `Description of the analog input pins <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/AnalogInputPins>`_ -- `analogRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogRead>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 64ecd5b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,116 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-analogwrite: - -analogWrite() -============= - -TODO - -In libmaple, analogWrite is just a convenience alias for -:ref:`pwmWrite`. This is because PWM is not true analog output (i.e., -is not the output of a DAC), so the name was badly-chosen; however, -for the sake of compatibility, the alias was provided. - -.. doxygenfunction:: pwmWrite - -Description ------------ - -Writes an analog value -(`PWM wave <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/PWM>`_) to a pin. Can be -used to light a LED at varying brightnesses or drive a motor at -various speeds. After a call to **analogWrite()**, the pin will -generate a steady square wave of the specified duty cycle until the -next call to **analogWrite()** (or a call to **digitalRead()** or -**digitalWrite()** on the same pin). The frequency of the PWM -signal is approximately 490 Hz. - - - -On most Arduino boards (those with the ATmega168 or ATmega328), -this function works on pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. On the Arduino -Mega, it works on pins 2 through 13. Older Arduino boards with an -ATmega8 only support analogWrite() on pins 9, 10, and 11. You do -not need to call pinMode() to set the pin as an output before -calling analogWrite(). - - - -The *analogWrite* function has nothing whatsoever to do with the -analog pins or the *analogRead* function. - - - -Syntax ------- - -analogWrite(pin, value) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin to write to. - - - -value: the duty cycle: between 0 (always off) and 255 (always on). - - - -Returns -------- - -nothing - - - -Notes and Known Issues ----------------------- - -The PWM outputs generated on pins 5 and 6 will have -higher-than-expected duty cycles. This is because of interactions -with the millis() and delay() functions, which share the same -internal timer used to generate those PWM outputs. This will be -noticed mostly on low duty-cycle settings (e.g 0 - 10) and may -result in a value of 0 not fully turning off the output on pins 5 -and 6. - - - -Example -------- - -Sets the output to the LED proportional to the value read from the -potentiometer. - - - -:: - - - int ledPin = 9; // LED connected to digital pin 9 - int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer connected to analog pin 3 - int val = 0; // variable to store the read value - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin - analogWrite(ledPin, val / 4); // analogRead values go from 0 to 1023, analogWrite values from 0 to 255 - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `analogRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogRead>`_\ () -- `Tutorial: PWM <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/PWM>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst b/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst deleted file mode 100644 index cbe3059..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,104 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-arithmetic: - -Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, & Division -================================================= - -Description ------------ - -These operators return the sum, difference, product, or quotient -(respectively) of the two operands. The operation is conducted using -the data type of the operands, so, for example, ``9 / 4`` gives ``2`` -since 9 and 4 are ints. - -This also means that the operation can overflow if the result is -larger than that which can be stored in the data type (e.g. adding 1 -to an :ref:`arduino-int` with the value 2147483647 gives --2147483648). If the operands are of different types, the "larger" -type is used for the calculation. - -(The specifics of these rules are beyond the scope of this -documentation; for more information, see `The C++ Programming Language -<http://www2.research.att.com/~bs/3rd.html>`_\ , by Bjarne -Stroustroup, Appendix C, especially ยงยงC.4-C.6, or `this WikiBooks -entry on C++ type conversion -<http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/C%2B%2B_Programming/Programming_Languages/C%2B%2B/Code/Statements/Variables/Type_Casting#Automatic_type_conversion>`_\ -. For more information on how computers represent integers, see the -Wikipedia page on `two's complement -<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two's_complement>`_\ ). - -If one of the numbers (operands) are of the type **float** or of type -**double**, floating point math will be used for the -calculation. - -Examples --------- - - :: - - y = y + 3; - x = x - 7; - i = j * 6; - r = r / 5; - - -Syntax ------- - - :: - - result = value1 + value2; - result = value1 - value2; - result = value1 * value2; - result = value1 / value2; - - -Parameters: ------------ - -**value1**: any numeric variable or constant - -**value2**: any numeric variable or constant - - -Arduino Compatibility Note --------------------------- - -Since the STM32 processor on the Maple is a 32-bit machine, the int -type overflows at a much higher value on Maple than on Arduino. In -particular, on Maple, ints do not overflow (become negative) until -they reach 2,147,483,648; on the Arduino, they overflow at 32,767. -Because of this, programs running on Maple are much less likely to run -into overflow issues. - - -Programming Tips: ------------------ - -- Know that :ref:`integer constants <arduino-integerconstants>` - default to :ref:`int <arduino-Int>`, so some constant calculations - may overflow (e.g., 200000 * 5000000 will yield a negative result). - -- Choose variable sizes that are large enough to hold the largest - results from your calculations. - -- Know at what point your variable will "roll over" and also what - happens in the other direction e.g. (0 - 1) for unsigned arithmetic, - or (0 - -2,147,483,648) for signed arithmetic. - -- For math that requires fractions, float variables may be used, but - be aware of their drawbacks: large size and slow computation speeds - (the STM32 has no floating point hardware, so all floating point - calculations have to be done in software). - -- Use the cast operator e.g. (int)myFloat to convert one variable type - to another on the fly. - - -See Also --------- - -- `libmaple_types.h <http://github.com/leaflabs/libmaple/blob/master/libmaple/libmaple_types.h>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/array.rst b/docs/source/arduino/array.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f6bc141..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/array.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,114 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-array: - -Arrays -====== - -An array is a collection of variables that are accessed with an index -number. Arrays in the C++ programming language, in which the Maple is -programmed, can be complicated, but using simple arrays is relatively -straightforward. - - -Creating (Declaring) an Array ------------------------------ - -All of the methods below are valid ways to create (declare) an -array. :: - - int myInts[6]; - int myPins[] = {2, 4, 8, 3, 6}; - int mySensVals[6] = {2, 4, -8, 3, 2}; - char message[6] = "hello"; - -You can declare an array without initializing it, as with myInts. In -the line referring to myPins, we declare an array without explicitly -choosing a size. The compiler counts the elements and creates an -array of the appropriate size. - -Finally, you can both initialize and size your array, as in -mySensVals. Note that when declaring an array with elements of type -char, one more element than your initialization is required, to hold -the required `null character <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null-terminated_string>`_. - - -Accessing an Array ------------------- - - -.. compound:: - - Arrays are **zero indexed**; that is, referring to the array - initialization above, the first element of the array is at index 0, - hence :: - - mySensVals[0] == 2; - mySensVals[1] == 4 - - and so forth. - -It also means that in an array with ten elements, index nine is the -last element. Hence:: - - int myArray[10]={9,3,2,4,3,2,7,8,9,11}; - // myArray[9] contains 11 - // myArray[10] is invalid and contains random information (other memory address) - -For this reason, you should be careful in accessing arrays. Accessing -past the end of an array (using an index number greater than your -declared array size - 1) is reading from memory that is in use for -other purposes. Reading from these locations is probably not going to -do much except yield invalid data. Writing to random memory locations -is definitely a bad idea, and can often lead to unhappy results such -as crashes or program malfunction. This can also be a difficult bug to -track down. - -Unlike Basic or Java, the C compiler does no checking to see if array -access is within legal bounds of the array size that you have -declared. - - -To assign a value to an array: ------------------------------- - :: - - mySensVals[0] = 10; - - -To retrieve a value from an array: ----------------------------------- - - :: - - x = mySensVals[4]; - - -Arrays and ``for`` Loops ------------------------- - -Arrays are often manipulated inside :ref:`for loops <arduino-for>`, where -the loop counter is used as the index for each array element. For -example, to print the elements of an array over the serial port, you -could do something like this:: - - int i; - for (i = 0; i < 5; i = i + 1) { - SerialUSB.println(myPins[i]); - } - - -Example -------- - -For a complete program that demonstrates the use of arrays, see the -Arduino `Knight Rider example -<http://www.arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/KnightRider>`_\ (which will run -unmodified on the Maple). - - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`Storing arrays in FLASH memory <arm-gcc-attribute-flash>` - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst b/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1c790bb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,64 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-assignment: - -= assignment operator (single equal sign) -========================================= - -Stores the value to the right of the equal sign in the variable to -the left of the equal sign. - - -The single equal sign in the C++ programming language is called the -assignment operator. It has a different meaning than in algebra -class, where it indicated an equation or equality. The assignment -operator tells the microcontroller to evaluate whatever value or -expression is on the right side of the equal sign, and store it in -the variable to the left of the equal sign [#fgross]_. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int sensVal; // declare an integer variable named sensVal - senVal = analogRead(0); // store the (digitized) input voltage at analog pin 0 in SensVal - - - -Programming Tips ----------------- - -The variable on the left side of the assignment operator ( = sign ) -needs to be able to hold the value stored in it. If it is not large -enough to hold a value, the value stored in the variable will be -incorrect. - - - -Don't confuse the assignment operator [ = ] (single equal sign) -with the comparison operator [ == ] (double equal signs), which -evaluates whether two expressions are equal. - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `if (comparison operators) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If>`_ -- `char <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Char>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ - - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fgross] Experienced C++ programmers know this to be an - oversimplification of what happens when the variable on the left - hand side is an object. See Richard Gillam's wonderful and scary - `The Anatomy of the Assignment Operator - <http://icu-project.org/docs/papers/cpp_report/the_anatomy_of_the_assignment_operator.html>`_ - for more information. diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 189141b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,93 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-attachinterrupt: - -attachInterrupt(interrupt, function, mode) -========================================== - -.. doxygenfunction:: attachInterrupt - -.. doxygenenum:: ExtIntTriggerMode - -.. doxygentypedef:: voidFuncPtr - -Discussion ----------- - -Specifies a function to call when an external interrupt occurs. -Replaces any previous function that was attached to the interrupt. -For more information on external interrupts on the Maple - -Note ----- - -Inside the attached function, delay() won't work, and the value -returned by millis() will not increment. Serial data received while in -the function may be lost. You should declare as volatile any variables -that you modify within the attached function. - - -Using Interrupts ----------------- - -Interrupts are useful for making things happen automatically in -microcontroller programs, and can help solve timing problems. A -good task for using an interrupt might be reading a rotary encoder, -monitoring user input. - - - -If you wanted to insure that a program always caught the pulses -from a rotary encoder, never missing a pulse, it would make it very -tricky to write a program to do anything else, because the program -would need to constantly poll the sensor lines for the encoder, in -order to catch pulses when they occurred. Other sensors have a -similar interface dynamic too, such as trying to read a sound -sensor that is trying to catch a click, or an infrared slot sensor -(photo-interrupter) trying to catch a coin drop. In all of these -situations, using an interrupt can free the microcontroller to get -some other work done while not missing the doorbell. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int maple_led_pin = 13; - volatile int state = LOW; - - void setup() - { - pinMode(maple_led_pin, OUTPUT); - attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(maple_led_pin, state); - } - - void blink() - { - state = !state; - } - - -Arduino Compatibility Note --------------------------- - -Most Arduino boards have two external interrupts: numbers 0 (on -digital pin 2) and 1 (on digital pin 3). The Arduino Mega has an -additional four: numbers 2 (pin 21), 3 (pin 20), 4 (pin 19), and 5 -(pin 18). - - -See also --------- - - -- `detachInterrupt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DetachInterrupt>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f8241a5..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bit: - -bit() -===== - -Description ------------ - -Computes the value of the specified bit (bit 0 is 1, bit 1 is 2, -bit 2 is 4, etc.). - - - -Syntax ------- - -bit(n) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -n: the bit whose value to compute - - - -Returns -------- - -the value of the bit - - - -See also --------- - - -- `bitRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitRead>`_\ () -- `bitWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitWrite>`_\ () -- `bitSet <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitSet>`_\ () -- `bitClear <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitClear>`_\ () diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e86dbc5..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitclear: - -bitClear() -========== - -Description ------------ - -Clears (writes a 0 to) a bit of a numeric variable. - - - -Syntax ------- - -bitClear(x, n) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the numeric variable whose bit to clear - - - -n: which bit to clear, starting at 0 for the least-significant -(rightmost) bit - - - -Returns -------- - -none - - - -See also --------- - - -- `bit <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bit>`_\ () -- `bitRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitRead>`_\ () -- `bitWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitWrite>`_\ () -- `bitSet <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitSet>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3d0b1a4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitread: - -bitRead() -========= - -Description ------------ - -Reads a bit of a number. - - - -Syntax ------- - -bitRead(x, n) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the number from which to read - - - -n: which bit to read, starting at 0 for the least-significant -(rightmost) bit - - - -Returns -------- - -the value of the bit (0 or 1). - - - -See also --------- - - -- `bit <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bit>`_\ () -- `bitWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitWrite>`_\ () -- `bitSet <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitSet>`_\ () -- `bitClear <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitClear>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 882ec92..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitset: - -bitSet() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Sets (writes a 1 to) a bit of a numeric variable. - - - -Syntax ------- - -bitSet(x, n) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the numeric variable whose bit to set - - - -n: which bit to set, starting at 0 for the least-significant -(rightmost) bit - - - -Returns -------- - -none - - - -See also --------- - - -- `bit <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bit>`_\ () -- `bitRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitRead>`_\ () -- `bitWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitWrite>`_\ () -- `bitClear <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitClear>`_\ () - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f59b489..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,127 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitshift: - -bitshift left (<<), bitshift right (>>) -======================================= - -Description ------------ - -From *The Bitmath Tutorial* in The Playground - - - -There are two bit shift operators in C++: the left shift operator -<< and the right shift operator >>. These operators cause the bits -in the left operand to be shifted left or right by the number of -positions specified by the right operand. -More on bitwise math may be found -`here. <http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Code/BitMath>`_ - - - -Syntax ------- - -variable << number\_of\_bits - - - -variable >> number\_of\_bits - - - -Parameters ----------- - -variable - (byte, int, long) number\_of\_bits integer <= 32 - - - -Example: --------- - -:: - - int a = 5; // binary: 0000000000000101 - int b = a << 3; // binary: 0000000000101000, or 40 in decimal - int c = b >> 3; // binary: 0000000000000101, or back to 5 like we started with - - - -When you shift a value x by y bits (x << y), the leftmost y bits in -x are lost, literally shifted out of existence: - - - -:: - - int a = 5; // binary: 0000000000000101 - int b = a << 14; // binary: 0100000000000000 - the first 1 in 101 was discarded - - - -If you are certain that none of the ones in a value are being -shifted into oblivion, a simple way to think of the left-shift -operator is that it multiplies the left operand by 2 raised to the -right operand power. For example, to generate powers of 2, the -following expressions can be employed: - - - -:: - - 1 << 0 == 1 - 1 << 1 == 2 - 1 << 2 == 4 - 1 << 3 == 8 - ... - 1 << 8 == 256 - 1 << 9 == 512 - 1 << 10 == 1024 - ... - - - -When you shift x right by y bits (x >> y), and the highest bit in x -is a 1, the behavior depends on the exact data type of x. If x is -of type int, the highest bit is the sign bit, determining whether x -is negative or not, as we have discussed above. In that case, the -sign bit is copied into lower bits, for esoteric historical -reasons: - - - -:: - - int x = -16; // binary: 1111111111110000 - int y = x >> 3; // binary: 1111111111111110 - - - -This behavior, called sign extension, is often not the behavior you -want. Instead, you may wish zeros to be shifted in from the left. -It turns out that the right shift rules are different for unsigned -int expressions, so you can use a typecast to suppress ones being -copied from the left: - - - -:: - - int x = -16; // binary: 1111111111110000 - int y = (unsigned int)x >> 3; // binary: 0001111111111110 - - - -If you are careful to avoid sign extension, you can use the -right-shift operator >> as a way to divide by powers of 2. For -example: - - - -:: - - int x = 1000; - int y = x >> 3; // integer division of 1000 by 8, causing y = 125. - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwiseand.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwiseand.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 8d4eb3f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwiseand.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,230 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitwiseand: - -Bitwise AND (&), Bitwise OR (\|), Bitwise XOR (^) -================================================= - -Bitwise AND (&) ---------------- - -The bitwise operators perform their calculations at the bit level -of variables. They help solve a wide range of common programming -problems. Much of the material below is from an excellent tutorial -on bitwise math wihch may be found -`here. <http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Code/BitMath>`_ - - - -Description and Syntax ----------------------- - -Below are descriptions and syntax for all of the operators. Further -details may be found in the referenced tutorial. - - - -Bitwise AND (&) ---------------- - -The bitwise AND operator in C++ is a single ampersand, &, used -between two other integer expressions. Bitwise AND operates on each -bit position of the surrounding expressions independently, -according to this rule: if both input bits are 1, the resulting -output is 1, otherwise the output is 0. Another way of expressing -this is: - - - -:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) - returned result - - - -In Arduino, the type int is a 16-bit value, so using & between two -int expressions causes 16 simultaneous AND operations to occur. In -a code fragment like: - - - -:: - - int a = 92; // in binary: 0000000001011100 - int b = 101; // in binary: 0000000001100101 - int c = a & b; // result: 0000000001000100, or 68 in decimal. - - - -Each of the 16 bits in a and b are processed by using the bitwise -AND, and all 16 resulting bits are stored in c, resulting in the -value 01000100 in binary, which is 68 in decimal. - - - -One of the most common uses of bitwise AND is to select a -particular bit (or bits) from an integer value, often called -masking. See below for an example - - - -Bitwise OR (\|) ---------------- - -The bitwise OR operator in C++ is the vertical bar symbol, \|. Like -the & operator, \| operates independently each bit in its two -surrounding integer expressions, but what it does is different (of -course). The bitwise OR of two bits is 1 if either or both of the -input bits is 1, otherwise it is 0. In other words: - - - -:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) - returned result - - - -Here is an example of the bitwise OR used in a snippet of C++ -code: - - - -:: - - int a = 92; // in binary: 0000000001011100 - int b = 101; // in binary: 0000000001100101 - int c = a | b; // result: 0000000001111101, or 125 in decimal. - - - -Example Program ---------------- - -A common job for the bitwise AND and OR operators is what -programmers call Read-Modify-Write on a port. On microcontrollers, -a port is an 8 bit number that represents something about the -condition of the pins. Writing to a port controls all of the pins -at once. - - - -PORTD is a built-in constant that refers to the output states of -digital pins 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. If there is 1 in an bit position, -then that pin is HIGH. (The pins already need to be set to outputs -with the pinMode() command.) So if we write ``PORTD = B00110001;`` -we have made pins 2,3 & 7 HIGH. One slight hitch here is that we -*may* also have changeed the state of Pins 0 & 1, which are used by -the Arduino for serial communications so we may have interfered -with serial communication. - - - -:: - - Our algorithm for the program is: - - -- Get PORTD and clear out only the bits corresponding to the pins - we wish to control (with bitwise AND). -- Combine the modified PORTD value with the new value for the pins - under control (with biwise OR). - - - -:: - - int i; // counter variable - int j; - - void setup(){ - DDRD = DDRD | B11111100; // set direction bits for pins 2 to 7, leave 0 and 1 untouched (xx | 00 == xx) - // same as pinMode(pin, OUTPUT) for pins 2 to 7 - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop(){ - for (i=0; i<64; i++){ - - PORTD = PORTD & B00000011; // clear out bits 2 - 7, leave pins 0 and 1 untouched (xx & 11 == xx) - j = (i << 2); // shift variable up to pins 2 - 7 - to avoid pins 0 and 1 - PORTD = PORTD | j; // combine the port information with the new information for LED pins - Serial.println(PORTD, BIN); // debug to show masking - delay(100); - } - } - - - -Bitwise XOR (^) ---------------- - -There is a somewhat unusual operator in C++ called bitwise -EXCLUSIVE OR, also known as bitwise XOR. (In English this is -usually pronounced "eks-or".) The bitwise XOR operator is written -using the caret symbol ^. This operator is very similar to the -bitwise OR operator \|, only it evaluates to 0 for a given bit -position when both of the input bits for that position are 1: - - - -:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 0 (operand1 ^ operand2) - returned result - - - -Another way to look at bitwise XOR is that each bit in the result -is a 1 if the input bits are different, or 0 if they are the same. - - - -Here is a simple code example: - - - -:: - - int x = 12; // binary: 1100 - int y = 10; // binary: 1010 - int z = x ^ y; // binary: 0110, or decimal 6 - - - -The ^ operator is often used to toggle (i.e. change from 0 to 1, or -1 to 0) some of the bits in an integer expression. In a bitwise OR -operation if there is a 1 in the mask bit, that bit is inverted; if -there is a 0, the bit is not inverted and stays the same. Below is -a program to blink digital pin 5. - - - -:: - - // Blink_Pin_5 - // demo for Exclusive OR - void setup(){ - DDRD = DDRD | B00100000; // set digital pin five as OUTPUT - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop(){ - PORTD = PORTD ^ B00100000; // invert bit 5 (digital pin 5), leave others untouched - delay(100); - } - - - -See Also - - -- `&& <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean>`_ (Boolean AND) -- `\|\| <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean>`_ (Boolean OR) - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst deleted file mode 100644 index c3c808f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,227 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitwisecompound: - -compound bitwise AND (&=), compound bitwise OR (\|=) -==================================================== - -The compound bitwise operators perform their calculations at the -bit level of variables. They are often used to clear and set -specific bits of a variable. - - - -See the -`bitwise AND (&) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd>`_ and -`bitwise OR (\|) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd>`_ -operators for the details of their operation, and also the -`Bitmath Tutorial <http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Code/BitMath>`_ -for more information on bitwise operators. - - - -compound bitwise AND (&=) -========================= - -Description ------------ - -The compound bitwise AND operator (&=) is often used with a -variable and a constant to force particular bits in a variable to -the LOW state (to 0). This is often referred to in programming -guides as "clearing" or "resetting" bits. - - - -Syntax: -------- - -:: - - x &= y; // equivalent to x = x & y; - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a char, int or long variable -y: an integer constant or char, int, or long - - - -Example: --------- - -First, a review of the Bitwise AND (&) operator - -:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) - returned result - - - -Bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 0 are cleared to 0 so, if myByte -is a byte variable, -``myByte & B00000000 = 0;`` - - - -Bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 1 are unchanged so, -``myByte & B11111111 = myByte;`` - - - -Note: because we are dealing with bits in a bitwise operator - it -is convenient to use the binary formatter with -`constants. <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntegerConstants>`_ The -numbers are still the same value in other representations, they are -just not as easy to understand. Also, B00000000 is shown for -clarity, but zero in any number format is zero (hmmm something -philosophical there?) - - - -Consequently - to clear (set to zero) bits 0 & 1 of a variable, -while leaving the rest of the variable unchanged, use the compound -bitwise AND operator (&=) with the constant B11111100 - -:: - - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable - 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask - ---------------------- - 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 - - variable unchanged - bits cleared - - -Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced -with the symbol x - - - -:: - - x x x x x x x x variable - 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask - ---------------------- - x x x x x x 0 0 - - variable unchanged - bits cleared - - -So if: - -:: - - myByte = 10101010; - - myByte &= B1111100 == B10101000; - - - -compound bitwise OR (\|=) -========================= - -Description ------------ - -The compound bitwise OR operator (\|=) is often used with a -variable and a constant to "set" (set to 1) particular bits in a -variable. - - - -Syntax: -------- - -:: - - x |= y; // equivalent to x = x | y; - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a char, int or long variable -y: an integer constant or char, int, or long - - - -Example: --------- - -First, a review of the Bitwise OR (\|) operator - -:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) - returned result - -Bits that are "bitwise ORed" with 0 are unchanged, so if myByte is -a byte variable, -myByte \| B00000000 = myByte; - - - -Bits that are "bitwise ORed" with 1 are set to 1 so: -myByte & B11111111 = B11111111; - - - -Consequently - to set bits 0 & 1 of a variable, while leaving the -rest of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise AND -operator (&=) with the constant B00000011 - -:: - - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask - ---------------------- - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 - - variable unchanged - bits set - - -Here is the same representation with the variables bits replaced -with the symbol x - - - -:: - - x x x x x x x x variable - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask - ---------------------- - x x x x x x 1 1 - - variable unchanged - bits set - -So if: - -:: - - myByte = B10101010; - - myByte |= B00000011 == B10101011; - - - -See Also - - -- `& <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd>`_ (bitwise AND) -- `\| <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd>`_ (bitwise OR) -- `&& <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean>`_ (Boolean AND) -- `\|\| <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean>`_ (Boolean OR) - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisexornot.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisexornot.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 25389cb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisexornot.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitwisexornot: - -Bitwise NOT (~) -=============== - -The bitwise NOT operator in C++ is the tilde character ~. Unlike & -and \|, the bitwise NOT operator is applied to a single operand to -its right. Bitwise NOT changes each bit to its opposite: 0 becomes -1, and 1 becomes 0. For example: - - - -:: - - 0 1 operand1 - - - -:: - - ---------- - 1 0 ~ operand1 - - - -:: - - int a = 103; // binary: 0000000001100111 - int b = ~a; // binary: 1111111110011000 = -104 - - - -You might be surprised to see a negative number like -104 as the -result of this operation. This is because the highest bit in an int -variable is the so-called sign bit. If the highest bit is 1, the -number is interpreted as negative. This encoding of positive and -negative numbers is referred to as two's complement. For more -information, see the Wikipedia article on -`two's complement. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twos_complement>`_ - - - -As an aside, it is interesting to note that for any integer x, ~x -is the same as -x-1. - - - -At times, the sign bit in a signed integer expression can cause -some unwanted surprises. - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5d95506..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitwrite: - -bitWrite() -========== - -Description ------------ - -Writes a bit of a numeric variable. - - - -Syntax ------- - -bitWrite(x, n, b) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the numeric variable to which to write - - - -n: which bit of the number to write, starting at 0 for the -least-significant (rightmost) bit - - - -b: the value to write to the bit (0 or 1) - - - -Returns -------- - -none - - - -See also --------- - - -- `bit <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bit>`_\ () -- `bitRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitRead>`_\ () -- `bitSet <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitSet>`_\ () -- `bitClear <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitClear>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst b/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f109bdb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,94 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-boolean: - -Boolean Operators -================= - -These can be used inside the condition of an -`if <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If>`_ statement. - - - -&& (logical and) -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -True only if both operands are true, e.g. - -:: - - if (digitalRead(2) == HIGH && digitalRead(3) == HIGH) { // read two switches - // ... - } - -is true only if both inputs are high. - - - -\|\| (logical or) -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -True if either operand is true, e.g. - -:: - - if (x > 0 || y > 0) { - // ... - } - -is true if either x or y is greater than 0. - - - -! (not) -~~~~~~~ - -True if the operand is false, e.g. - -:: - - if (!x) { - // ... - } - -is true if x is false (i.e. if x equals 0). - - - -Warning -------- - -Make sure you don't mistake the boolean AND operator, && (double -ampersand) for the bitwise AND operator & (single ampersand). They -are entirely different beasts. - - - -Similarly, do not confuse the boolean \|\| (double pipe) operator -with the bitwise OR operator \| (single pipe). - - - -The bitwise not ~ (tilde) looks much different than the boolean not -! (exclamation point or "bang" as the programmers say) but you -still have to be sure which one you want where. - - - -Examples --------- - -:: - - if (a >= 10 && a <= 20){} // true if a is between 10 and 20 - - - -See also --------- - - -- `& <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd>`_ (bitwise AND) -- `\| <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd>`_ (bitwise OR) -- `~ <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseXorNot>`_ (bitwise NOT -- `if <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst b/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3bbe72a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,53 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-booleanvariables: - -boolean -======= - -A **boolean** holds one of two values, -`true <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ or -`false <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_. (Each boolean -variable occupies one byte of memory.) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int LEDpin = 5; // LED on pin 5 - int switchPin = 13; // momentary switch on 13, other side connected to ground - - boolean running = false; - - void setup() - { - pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(switchPin, INPUT); - digitalWrite(switchPin, HIGH); // turn on pullup resistor - } - - void loop() - { - if (digitalRead(switchPin) == LOW) - { // switch is pressed - pullup keeps pin high normally - delay(100); // delay to debounce switch - running = !running; // toggle running variable - digitalWrite(LEDpin, running) // indicate via LED - } - } - - - - - - -See also --------- - - -- `constants <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ -- `boolean operators <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst b/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst deleted file mode 100644 index c7bd148..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,113 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-braces: - -{} Curly Braces -=============== - -Curly braces (also referred to as just "braces" or as "curly -brackets") are a major part of the C programming language. They are -used in several different constructs, outlined below, and this can -sometimes be confusing for beginners. - - - -An opening curly brace "{" must always be followed by a closing -curly brace "}". This is a condition that is often referred to as -the braces being balanced. The Arduino IDE (integrated development -environment) includes a convenient feature to check the balance of -curly braces. Just select a brace, or even click the insertion -point immediately following a brace, and its logical companion will -be highlighted. - - - -At present this feature is slightly buggy as the IDE will often -find (incorrectly) a brace in text that has been "commented out." - - - -Beginning programmers, and programmers coming to C from the BASIC -language often find using braces confusing or daunting. After all, -the same curly braces replace the RETURN statement in a subroutine -(function), the ENDIF statement in a conditional and the NEXT -statement in a FOR loop. - - - -Because the use of the curly brace is so varied, it is good -programming practice to type the closing brace immediately after -typing the opening brace when inserting a construct which requires -curly braces. Then insert some carriage returns between your braces -and begin inserting statements. Your braces, and your attitude, -will never become unbalanced. - - - -Unbalanced braces can often lead to cryptic, impenetrable compiler -errors that can sometimes be hard to track down in a large program. -Because of their varied usages, braces are also incredibly -important to the syntax of a program and moving a brace one or two -lines will often dramatically affect the meaning of a program. - - - -**The main uses of curly braces** ---------------------------------- - -Functions ---------- - -:: - - void myfunction(datatype argument){ - statements(s) - } - - - -Loops ------ - -:: - - while (boolean expression) - { - statement(s) - } - - do - { - statement(s) - } while (boolean expression); - - for (initialisation; termination condition; incrementing expr) - { - statement(s) - } - - - -Conditional statements ----------------------- - - - -:: - - if (boolean expression) - { - statement(s) - } - - else if (boolean expression) - { - statement(s) - } - else - { - statement(s) - } - - - -`Reference Home <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/HomePage>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst b/docs/source/arduino/break.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d951c52..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-break: - -break -===== - -**break** is used to exit from a **do**, **for**, or **while** -loop, bypassing the normal loop condition. It is also used to exit -from a **switch** statement. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) - { - digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); - sens = analogRead(sensorPin); - if (sens > threshold){ // bail out on sensor detect - x = 0; - break; - } - delay(50); - } - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5e94bd4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-byte: - -byte -==== - -Description ------------ - -A byte stores an 8-bit unsigned number, from 0 to 255. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - byte b = B10010; // "B" is the binary formatter (B10010 = 18 decimal) - - - -See also --------- - - -- `word <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Word>`_ -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/ByteCast>`_\ () -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 71ab4aa..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bytecast: - -byte() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the -`byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ data type. - - - -Syntax ------- - -byte(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -byte - - - -See also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/changes.rst b/docs/source/arduino/changes.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 75cd65d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/changes.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,93 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-changes: - -Changes -======= - -This page lists major changes to the Arduino core, libraries, and -environment. For details, see the -`release notes <http://arduino.cc/en/Main/ReleaseNotes>`_. - - - -Changes in Arduino 0017 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - -- **Environment**: The code base for the Arduino development - environment was largely re-written to bring it back into sync with - Processing (1.0.3). The main differences include support for - multiple sketch windows open simultaneously and a dedicated window - for the serial monitor. - - -- **Icons**: The icons and about images were updated. - - -- **Arduino.app**: The Mac OS X version of Arduino is now a .app - file packaged in a .dmg. - - -- **Libraries**: Support was added for third-party libraries in - the *SKETCHBOOK*/libraries directory. This allows user-installed - libraries to persist across upgrades of the Arduino software. - - -- **Servo**: The servo library was rewritten to allow support for - up to 12 servos (on any pins) and up to 48 on the Mega. - - -- **LiquidCrystal**: The begin(), cursor(), noCursor(), blink(), - noBlink(), display(), noDisplay(), scrollDisplayLeft(), - scrollDisplayRight(), autoscroll(), noAutoscroll(), leftToRight(), - rightToLeft(), and createChar() functions were added. - - - -Changes in Arduino 0016 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - -- New functions for writing a string, write(str), or buffer, - write(buf, len), were added to the Print, Serial, and Ethernet - library Client and Server classes. - - - -Changes in Arduino 0015 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - -- Support for the Arduino Mega. - - - -Changes in Arduino 0013 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - -- Support for printing floats was added to the Print, Serial, and - Ethernet library Client and Server classes. - - -- The word type and word(), bitRead(), bitWrite(), bitSet(), - bitClear(), bit(), lowByte(), and highByte() functions were added. - - - -Changes in Arduino 0012 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - -- Added the Firmata library, which provides a standard protocol - for serial communication. - - -- Added Ethernet library. - - -- Added Servo library. - - -- Added LiquidCrystal library. - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/char.rst b/docs/source/arduino/char.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e783ed6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/char.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-char: - -char -==== - -Description ------------ - -A data type that takes up 1 byte of memory that stores a character -value. Character literals are written in single quotes, like this: -'A' (for multiple characters - strings - use double quotes: -"ABC"). - - - -Characters are stored as numbers however. You can see the specific -encoding in the -`ASCII chart <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/ASCIIchart>`_. This -means that it is possible to do arithmetic on characters, in which -the ASCII value of the character is used (e.g. 'A' + 1 has the -value 66, since the ASCII value of the capital letter A is 65). See -`Serial.println <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Println>`_ reference -for more on how characters are translated to numbers. - - - -The char datatype is a signed type, meaning that it encodes numbers -from -128 to 127. For an unsigned, one-byte (8 bit) data type, use -the *byte* data type. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - char myChar = 'A'; - char myChar = 65; // both are equivalent - - - -See also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `array <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Array>`_ -- `Serial.println <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Println>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index daa7c92..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-charcast: - -char() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the -`char <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Char>`_ data type. - - - -Syntax ------- - -char(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -char - - - -See also --------- - - -- `char <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Char>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 189ead5..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,45 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-comments: - -Comments -======== - -Comments are lines in the program that are used to inform yourself -or others about the way the program works. They are ignored by the -compiler, and not exported to the processor, so they don't take up -any space on the Atmega chip. - - - -Comments only purpose are to help you understand (or remember) how -your program works or to inform others how your program works. -There are two different ways of marking a line as a comment: - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - x = 5; // This is a single line comment. Anything after the slashes is a comment - // to the end of the line - - /* this is multiline comment - use it to comment out whole blocks of code - - if (gwb == 0){ // single line comment is OK inside a multiline comment - x = 3; /* but not another multiline comment - this is invalid */ - } - // don't forget the "closing" comment - they have to be balanced! - */ - - - -**Tip** -When experimenting with code, "commenting out" parts of your -program is a convenient way to remove lines that may be buggy. This -leaves the lines in the code, but turns them into comments, so the -compiler just ignores them. This can be especially useful when -trying to locate a problem, or when a program refuses to compile -and the compiler error is cryptic or unhelpful. - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b87e05b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,54 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-comparison: - -Arduino/Processing Language Comparison -====================================== - -The Arduino language (based on Wiring) is implemented in C/C++, and -therefore has some differences from the Processing language, which -is based on Java. - - - -Arrays -~~~~~~ - -*Arduino* -*Processing* -int bar[8]; -bar[0] = 1; -int[] bar = new int[8]; -bar[0] = 1; -int foo[] = { 0, 1, 2 }; -int foo[] = { 0, 1, 2 }; -*or* -int[] foo = { 0, 1, 2 }; - - -Loops -~~~~~ - -*Arduino* -*Processing* -int i; -for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) { ... } -for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) { ... } - - -Printing -~~~~~~~~ - -*Arduino* -*Processing* -Serial.println("hello world"); -println("hello world"); -int i = 5; -Serial.println(i); -int i = 5; -println(i); -int i = 5; -Serial.print("i = "); -Serial.print(i); -Serial.println(); -int i = 5; -println("i = " + i); - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst b/docs/source/arduino/const.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 295b817..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-const: - -const keyword -============= - -The **const** keyword stands for constant. It is a variable -*qualifier* that modifies the behavior of the variable, making a -variable "*read-only*". This means that the variable can be used -just as any other variable of its type, but its value cannot be -changed. You will get a compiler error if you try to assign a value -to a **const** variable. - - - -Constants defined with the *const* keyword obey the rules of -*`variable scoping <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Scope>`_* that -govern other variables. This, and the pitfalls of using*#define*, -makes the *const* keyword a superior method for defining constants -and is preferred over using -*`#define <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Define>`_*. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - const float pi = 3.14; - float x; - - // .... - - x = pi * 2; // it's fine to use const's in math - - pi = 7; // illegal - you can't write to (modify) a constant - - -**#define** or **const** ------------------------- - -You can use either **const** or **#define** for creating numeric or -string constants. For -`arrays <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Array>`_, you will need to -use **const**. In general *const* is preferred over *#define* for -defining constants. - - - -See also: - - -- `#define <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Define>`_ -- `volatile <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Volatile>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 49f3933..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,144 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-constants: - -constants -========= - -Constants are predefined variables in the Arduino language. They -are used to make the programs easier to read. We classify constants -in groups. - - - -Defining Logical Levels, true and false (Boolean Constants) -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -There are two constants used to represent truth and falsity in the -Arduino language: **true**, and **false**. - - - -false ------ - -false is the easier of the two to define. false is defined as 0 -(zero). - - - -true ----- - -true is often said to be defined as 1, which is correct, but true -has a wider definition. Any integer which is *non-zero* is TRUE, in -a Boolean sense. So -1, 2 and -200 are all defined as true, too, in -a Boolean sense. - - - -Note that the *true* and *false* constants are typed in lowercase -unlike HIGH, LOW, INPUT, & OUTPUT. - - - -Defining Pin Levels, HIGH and LOW -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -When reading or writing to a digital pin there are only two -possible values a pin can take/be-set-to: **HIGH** and **LOW**. - - - -**HIGH** - - - -The meaning of HIGH (in reference to a pin) is somewhat different -depending on whether a pin is set to an INPUT or OUTPUT. When a pin -is configured as an INPUT with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, -the microcontroller will report HIGH if a voltage of 3 volts or -more is present at the pin. - - - -A pin may also be configured as an INPUT with pinMode, and -subsequently made HIGH with digitalWrite, this will set the -internal 20K pullup resistors, which will *steer* the input pin to -a HIGH reading unless it is pulled LOW by external circuitry. - - - -When a pin is configured to OUTPUT with pinMode, and set to HIGH -with digitalWrite, the pin is at 5 volts. In this state it can -*source* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected through a -series resistor to ground, or to another pin configured as an -output, and set to LOW. - - - -**LOW** - - - -The meaning of LOW also has a different meaning depending on -whether a pin is set to INPUT or OUTPUT. When a pin is configured -as an INPUT with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, the -microcontroller will report LOW if a voltage of 2 volts or less is -present at the pin. - - - -When a pin is configured to OUTPUT with pinMode, and set to LOW -with digitalWrite, the pin is at 0 volts. In this state it can -*sink* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected through a -series resistor to, +5 volts, or to another pin configured as an -output, and set to HIGH. - - - -Defining Digital Pins, INPUT and OUTPUT -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -Digital pins can be used either as **INPUT** or **OUTPUT**. -Changing a pin from INPUT TO OUTPUT with pinMode() drastically -changes the electrical behavior of the pin. - - - -Pins Configured as Inputs -------------------------- - -Arduino (Atmega) pins configured as **INPUT** with pinMode() are -said to be in a high-impedance state. One way of explaining this is -that pins configured as INPUT make extremely small demands on the -circuit that they are sampling, say equivalent to a series resistor -of 100 Megohms in front of the pin. This makes them useful for -reading a sensor, but not powering an LED. - - - -Pins Configured as Outputs --------------------------- - -Pins configured as **OUTPUT** with pinMode() are said to be in a -low-impedance state. This means that they can provide a substantial -amount of current to other circuits. Atmega pins can source -(provide positive current) or sink (provide negative current) up to -40 mA (milliamps) of current to other devices/circuits. This makes -them useful for powering LED's but useless for reading sensors. -Pins configured as outputs can also be damaged or destroyed if -short circuited to either ground or 5 volt power rails. The amount -of current provided by an Atmega pin is also not enough to power -most relays or motors, and some interface circuitry will be -required. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `pinMode() <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode>`_ -- `Integer Constants <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntegerConstants>`_ -- `boolean variables <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BooleanVariables>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 2769219..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,60 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-constrain: - -constrain(x, a, b) -================== - -Description ------------ - -Constrains a number to be within a range. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the number to constrain, all data types - - - -a: the lower end of the range, all data types - - - -b: the upper end of the range, all data types - - - -Returns -------- - -**x**: if **x** is between **a** and **b** - - - -**a**: if **x** is less than **a** - - - -**b**: if **x** is greater than **b** - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - sensVal = constrain(sensVal, 10, 150); - // limits range of sensor values to between 10 and 150 - - - -See also --------- - - -- `min <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Min>`_\ () -- `max <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Max>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst b/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 66c7e60..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-continue: - -continue -======== - -The continue statement skips the rest of the current iteration of a -loop (**do**, **for**, or **while**). It continues by checking the -conditional expression of the loop, and proceeding with any -subsequent iterations. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) - { - if (x > 40 && x < 120){ // create jump in values - continue; - } - - digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); - delay(50); - } - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst b/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 7fed4bb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-cos: - -cos(rad) -======== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the cos of an angle (in radians). The result will be -between -1 and 1. - -Parameters ----------- - -rad: the angle in radians (*float*) - - - -Returns -------- - -The cos of the angle ("double") - - - -See also --------- - - -- `sin <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Sin>`_\ () -- `tan <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Tan>`_\ () -- `float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ -- `double <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Double>`_ diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/define.rst b/docs/source/arduino/define.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 6190cb9..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/define.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,83 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-define: - -Define -====== - -``#define`` is a useful C component that allows the programmer to -give a name to a constant value before the program is compiled. -Defined constants in arduino don't take up any program memory space -on the chip. The compiler will replace references to these -constants with the defined value at compile time. - - - -This can have some unwanted side effects though, if for example, a -constant name that had been #defined is included in some other -constant or variable name. In that case the text would be replaced -by the #defined number (or text). - - - -In general, the *`const <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Const>`_* -keyword is preferred for defining constants and should be used -instead of #define. - - - -Arduino defines have the same syntax as C defines: - - - -Syntax ------- - -``#define constantName value`` - - - -Note that the # is necessary. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - #define ledPin 3 - // The compiler will replace any mention of ledPin with the value 3 at compile time. - - - -Tip ---- - -There is no semicolon after the #define statement. If you include -one, the compiler will throw cryptic errors further down the page. - - - -:: - - #define ledPin 3; // this is an error - - - -Similarly, including an equal sign after the #define statement will -also generate a cryptic compiler error further down the page. - - - -:: - - #define ledPin = 3 // this is also an error - - - -See ---- - - -- `const <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Const>`_ -- `Constants <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntegerConstants>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 973c75b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,94 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-delay: - -delay() -======= - -Description ------------ - -Pauses the program for the amount of time (in miliseconds) -specified as parameter. (There are 1000 milliseconds in a second.) - - - -Syntax ------- - -delay(ms) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -ms: the number of milliseconds to pause (*unsigned long*) - - - -Returns -------- - -nothing - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on - delay(1000); // waits for a second - digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off - delay(1000); // waits for a second - } - - - -Caveat ------- - -While it is easy to create a blinking LED with the delay() -function, and many sketches use short delays for such tasks as -switch debouncing, the use of delay() in a sketch has significant -drawbacks. No other reading of sensors, mathematical calculations, -or pin manipulation can go on during the delay function, so in -effect, it brings most other activity to a halt. For alternative -approaches to controlling timing see the -`millis() <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Millis>`_ function and -the sketch sited below. More knowledgeable programmers usually -avoid the use of delay() for timing of events longer than 10's of -milliseconds unless the Arduino sketch is very simple. - - - -Certain things *do* go on while the delay() function is controlling -the Atmega chip however, because the delay function does not -disable interrupts. Serial communication that appears at the RX pin -is recorded, PWM -(`analogWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogWrite>`_) -values and pin states are maintained, and -`interrupts <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AttachInterrupt>`_ will -work as they should. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `millis <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Millis>`_\ () -- `micros <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Micros>`_\ () -- `delayMicroseconds <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DelayMicroseconds>`_\ () -- `Blink Without Delay <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/BlinkWithoutDelay>`_ - example - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0feaba7..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,93 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-delaymicroseconds: - -delayMicroseconds() -=================== - -Description ------------ - -Pauses the program for the amount of time (in microseconds) -specified as parameter. There are a thousand microseconds in a -millisecond, and a million microseconds in a second. - - - -Currently, the largest value that will produce an accurate delay is -16383. This could change in future Arduino releases. For delays -longer than a few thousand microseconds, you should use delay() -instead. - - - -Syntax ------- - -delayMicroseconds(us) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -us: the number of microseconds to pause (*unsigned int*) - - - -Returns -------- - -None - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - int outPin = 8; // digital pin 8 - - void setup() - { - pinMode(outPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(outPin, HIGH); // sets the pin on - delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds - digitalWrite(outPin, LOW); // sets the pin off - delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds - } - - - -configures pin number 8 to work as an output pin. It sends a train -of pulses with 100 microseconds period. - - - -Caveats and Known Issues ------------------------- - -This function works very accurately in the range 3 microseconds and -up. We cannot assure that delayMicroseconds will perform precisely -for smaller delay-times. - - - -As of Arduino 0018, delayMicroseconds() no longer disables -interrupts. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `millis <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Millis>`_\ () -- `micros <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Micros>`_\ () -- `delay <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Delay>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f0342df..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-detachinterrupt: - -detachInterrupt(interrupt) -========================== - -Description ------------ - -Turns off the given interrupt. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -interrupt: the number of interrupt to disable (0 or 1). - - - -See also --------- - - -- `attachInterrupt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AttachInterrupt>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst deleted file mode 100644 index ec64fb0..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,86 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-digitalread: - -digitalRead() -============= - -Description ------------ - -Reads the value from a specified digital pin, either -`HIGH <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ or -`LOW <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_. - - - -Syntax ------- - -digitalRead(pin) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the number of the digital pin you want to read (*int*) - - - -Returns -------- - -`HIGH <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ or -`LOW <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 - int inPin = 7; // pushbutton connected to digital pin 7 - int val = 0; // variable to store the read value - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin 13 as output - pinMode(inPin, INPUT); // sets the digital pin 7 as input - } - - void loop() - { - val = digitalRead(inPin); // read the input pin - digitalWrite(ledPin, val); // sets the LED to the button's value - } - - - -Sets pin 13 to the same value as the pin 7, which is an input. - - - -Note ----- - -If the pin isn't connected to anything, digitalRead() can return -either HIGH or LOW (and this can change randomly). - - - -The analog input pins can be used as digital pins, referred to as -A0, A1, etc. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `pinMode <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode>`_\ () -- `digitalWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DigitalWrite>`_\ () -- `Tutorial: Digital Pins <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/DigitalPins>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 82e1813..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,113 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-digitalwrite: - -digitalWrite() -============== - -Description ------------ - -Write a `HIGH <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ or a -`LOW <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ value to a -digital pin. - - - -If the pin has been configured as an OUTPUT with -`pinMode <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode>`_\ (), its voltage -will be set to the corresponding value: 5V (or 3.3V on 3.3V boards) -for HIGH, 0V (ground) for LOW. - - - -If the pin is configured as an INPUT, writing a HIGH value with -digitalWrite() will enable an internal 20K pullup resistor (see the -`tutorial on digital pins <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/DigitalPins>`_). -Writing LOW will disable the pullup. The pullup resistor is enough -to light an LED dimly, so if LEDs appear to work, but very dimly, -this is a likely cause. The remedy is to set the pin to an output -with the pinMode() function. - - - -**NOTE:** Digital pin 13 is harder to use as a digital input than -the other digital pins because it has an LED and resistor attached -to it that's soldered to the board on most boards. If you enable -its internal 20k pull-up resistor, it will hang at around 1.7 V -instead of the expected 5V because the onboard LED and series -resistor pull the voltage level down, meaning it always returns -LOW. If you must use pin 13 as a digital input, use an external -pull down resistor. - - - -Syntax ------- - -digitalWrite(pin, value) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin number - - - -value: `HIGH <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ or -`LOW <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ - - - -Returns -------- - -none - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on - delay(1000); // waits for a second - digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off - delay(1000); // waits for a second - } - - - -Sets pin 13 to HIGH, makes a one-second-long delay, and sets the -pin back to LOW. - - - -Note ----- - -The analog input pins can be used as digital pins, referred to as -A0, A1, etc. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `pinMode <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode>`_\ () -- `digitalRead <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DigitalRead>`_\ () -- `Tutorial: Digital Pins <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/DigitalPins>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/double.rst b/docs/source/arduino/double.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 4e7f20c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/double.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-double: - -double -====== - -Desciption ----------- - -Double precision floating point number. Occupies 4 bytes. - - - -The double implementation on the Arduino is currently exactly the -same as the float, with no gain in precision. - - - -Tip ---- - -Users who borrow code from other sources that includes double -variables may wish to examine the code to see if the implied -precision is different from that actually achieved on the Arduino. - - - -See: ----- - - -- `float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 48fe75b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-dowhile: - -do - while -========== - -The **do** loop works in the same manner as the **while** loop, -with the exception that the condition is tested at the end of the -loop, so the **do** loop will *always* run at least once. - - - -:: - - do - { - // statement block - } while (test condition); - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - do - { - delay(50); // wait for sensors to stabilize - x = readSensors(); // check the sensors - - } while (x < 100); - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/else.rst b/docs/source/arduino/else.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f278a0d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/else.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,73 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-else: - -if / else -========= - -**if/else** allows greater control over the flow of code than the -basic **if** statement, by allowing multiple tests to be grouped -together. For example, an analog input could be tested and one -action taken if the input was less than 500, and another action -taken if the input was 500 or greater. The code would look like -this: - - - -:: - - if (pinFiveInput < 500) - { - // action A - } - else - { - // action B - } - - - -**else** can proceed another **if** test, so that multiple, -mutually exclusive tests can be run at the same time. - - - -Each test will proceed to the next one until a true test is -encountered. When a true test is found, its associated block of -code is run, and the program then skips to the line following the -entire if/else construction. If no test proves to be true, the -default **else** block is executed, if one is present, and sets the -default behavior. - - - -Note that an **else if** block may be used with or without a -terminating **else** block and vice versa. An unlimited number of -such **else if** branches is allowed. - - - -:: - - if (pinFiveInput < 500) - { - // do Thing A - } - else if (pinFiveInput >= 1000) - { - // do Thing B - } - else - { - // do Thing C - } - -Another way to express branching, mutually exclusive tests, is with -the `switch case <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SwitchCase>`_ -statement. - - - -See also: ---------- - -`switch case <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SwitchCase>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/float.rst b/docs/source/arduino/float.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 2f83a67..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/float.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,88 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-float: - -float -===== - -Description ------------ - -Datatype for floating-point numbers, a number that has a decimal -point. Floating-point numbers are often used to approximate analog -and continuous values because they have greater resolution than -integers. Floating-point numbers can be as large as 3.4028235E+38 -and as low as -3.4028235E+38. They are stored as 32 bits (4 bytes) -of information. - - - -Floats have only 6-7 decimal digits of precision. That means the -total number of digits, not the number to the right of the decimal -point. Unlike other platforms, where you can get more precision by -using a double (e.g. up to 15 digits), on the Arduino, double is -the same size as float. - - - -Floating point numbers are not exact, and may yield strange results -when compared. For example ``6.0 / 3.0`` may not equal ``2.0``. You -should instead check that the absolute value of the difference -between the numbers is less than some small number. - - - -Floating point math is also much slower than integer math in -performing calculations, so should be avoided if, for example, a -loop has to run at top speed for a critical timing function. -Programmers often go to some lengths to convert floating point -calculations to integer math to increase speed. - - - -Examples --------- - -:: - - float myfloat; - float sensorCalbrate = 1.117; - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - float var = val; - - - - -- var - your float variable name -- val - the value you assign to that variable - - - -Example Code ------------- - -:: - - int x; - int y; - float z; - - x = 1; - y = x / 2; // y now contains 0, ints can't hold fractions - z = (float)x / 2.0; // z now contains .5 (you have to use 2.0, not 2) - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `double <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Double>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 6b85727..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-floatcast: - -float() -======= - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the -`float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ data type. - - - -Syntax ------- - -float(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -float - - - -Notes ------ - -See the reference for -`float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ for details about -the precision and limitations of floating point numbers on -Arduino. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/for.rst b/docs/source/arduino/for.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b7e2e95..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/for.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,117 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-for: - -for statements -============== - -Desciption ----------- - -The **for** statement is used to repeat a block of statements -enclosed in curly braces. An increment counter is usually used to -increment and terminate the loop. The **for** statement is useful -for any repetitive operation, and is often used in combination with -arrays to operate on collections of data/pins. - - - -There are three parts to the **for** loop header: - - - -``<strong>for</strong> (<strong>initialization</strong>;<strong> condition</strong>;<strong> increment</strong>) {`` - - - -``//statement(s);`` - - - -``}`` - -|image0| - - -The **initialization** happens first and exactly once. Each time -through the loop, the **condition** is tested; if it's true, the -statement block, and the **increment** is executed, then the -**condition** is tested again. When the **condition** becomes -false, the loop ends. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - // Dim an LED using a PWM pin - int PWMpin = 10; // LED in series with 470 ohm resistor on pin 10 - - void setup() - { - // no setup needed - } - - void loop() - { - for (int i=0; i <= 255; i++){ - analogWrite(PWMpin, i); - delay(10); - } - } - - - -Coding Tips ------------ - -The C **for** loop is much more flexible than **for** loops found -in some other computer languages, including BASIC. Any or all of -the three header elements may be omitted, although the semicolons -are required. Also the statements for initialization, condition, -and increment can be any valid C statements with unrelated -variables, and use any C datatypes including floats. These types of -unusual **for** statements may provide solutions to some rare -programming problems. - - - -For example, using a multiplication in the increment line will -generate a logarithmic progression: - -:: - - for(int x = 2; x < 100; x = x * 1.5){ - println(x); - } - - - -Generates: 2,3,4,6,9,13,19,28,42,63,94 - - - -Another example, fade an LED up and down with one **for** loop: - - - -:: - - void loop() - { - int x = 1; - for (int i = 0; i > -1; i = i + x){ - analogWrite(PWMpin, i); - if (i = 255) x = -1; // switch direction at peak - delay(10); - } - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `while <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/While>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/fpconstants.rst b/docs/source/arduino/fpconstants.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 284342b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/fpconstants.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-fpconstants: - -floating point constants -======================== - -Similar to integer constants, floating point constants are used to -make code more readable. Floating point constants are swapped at -compile time for the value to which the expression evaluates. - - - -Examples: - - - -``n = .005;`` - - - -Floating point constants can also be expressed in a variety of -scientific notation. 'E' and 'e' are both accepted as valid -exponent indicators. - - - -:: - - - floating-point evaluates to: also evaluates to: - constant - - 10.0 10 - 2.34E5 2.34 * 10^5 234000 - 67e-12 67.0 * 10^-12 .000000000067 - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst b/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1fcceb7..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-goto: - -goto -==== - -Transfers program flow to a labeled point in the program - - - -Syntax ------- - -label: - - - -goto label; // sends program flow to the label - - - -Tip ---- - -The use of *goto* is discouraged in C programming, and some authors -of C programming books claim that the *goto* statement is never -necessary, but used judiciously, it can simplify certain programs. -The reason that many programmers frown upon the use of *goto* is -that with the unrestrained use of *goto* statements, it is easy to -create a program with undefined program flow, which can never be -debugged. - - - -With that said, there are instances where a goto statement can come -in handy, and simplify coding. One of these situations is to break -out of deeply nested *for* loops, or *if* logic blocks, on a -certain condition. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - for(byte r = 0; r < 255; r++){ - for(byte g = 255; g > -1; g--){ - for(byte b = 0; b < 255; b++){ - if (analogRead(0) > 250){ goto bailout;} - // more statements ... - } - } - } - bailout: - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst deleted file mode 100644 index dc6a1d6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-highbyte: - -highByte() -========== - -Description ------------ - -Extracts the high-order (leftmost) byte of a word (or the second -lowest byte of a larger data type). - - - -Syntax ------- - -highByte(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -byte - - - -See also --------- - - -- `lowByte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/LowByte>`_\ () -- `word <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/WordCast>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/if.rst b/docs/source/arduino/if.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d75f6d3..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/if.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,95 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-if: - -if (conditional) and ==, !=, <, > (comparison operators) -======================================================== - -**``if``**, which is used in conjunction with a comparison -operator, tests whether a certain condition has been reached, such -as an input being above a certain number. The format for an if test -is: - - - -:: - - if (someVariable > 50) - { - // do something here - } - - - -The program tests to see if someVariable is greater than 50. If it -is, the program takes a particular action. Put another way, if the -statement in parentheses is true, the statements inside the -brackets are run. If not, the program skips over the code. - - - -The brackets may be omitted after an *if* statement. If this is -done, the next line (defined by the semicolon) becomes the only -conditional statement. - -:: - - - if (x > 120) digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH); - - if (x > 120) - digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH); - - if (x > 120){ digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH); } - - if (x > 120){ - digitalWrite(LEDpin1, HIGH); - digitalWrite(LEDpin2, HIGH); - } // all are correct - - - -The statements being evaluated inside the parentheses require the -use of one or more operators: - - - -Comparison Operators: -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -:: - - x == y (x is equal to y) - x != y (x is not equal to y) - x < y (x is less than y) - x > y (x is greater than y) - x <= y (x is less than or equal to y) - x >= y (x is greater than or equal to y) - - - -Warning: --------- - -Beware of accidentally using the single equal sign -(e.g.``if (x = 10)`` ). The single equal sign is the assignment -operator, and sets x to 10 (puts the value 10 into the variable x). -Instead use the double equal sign (e.g.``if (x == 10)``), which is -the comparison operator, and tests *whether* x is equal to 10 or -not. The latter statement is only true if x equals 10, but the -former statement will always be true. - - - -This is because C evaluates the statement ``if (x=10)`` as follows: -10 is assigned to x (remember that the single equal sign is the -`assignment operator <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Assignment>`_), -so x now contains 10. Then the 'if' conditional evaluates 10, which -always evaluates to TRUE, since any non-zero number evaluates to -TRUE. Consequently, ``if (x = 10)`` will always evaluate to TRUE, -which is not the desired result when using an 'if' statement. -Additionally, the variable x will be set to 10, which is also not a -desired action. - - - -**if** can also be part of a branching control structure using the -`if...else <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Else>`_] construction. diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/include.rst b/docs/source/arduino/include.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 6d53801..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/include.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-include: - -#include -======== - -**#include** is used to include outside libraries in your sketch. -This gives the programmer access to a large group of standard C -libraries (groups of pre-made functions), and also libraries -written especially for Arduino. - - - -The main reference page for AVR C libraries (AVR is a reference to -the Atmel chips on which the Arduino is based) is -`here. <http://www.nongnu.org/avr-libc/user-manual/modules.html>`_ - - - -Note that **#include**, similar to **#define**, has no semicolon -terminator, and the compiler will yield cryptic error messages if -you add one. - - - -Example -------- - -This example includes a library that is used to put data into the -program space *flash* instead of *ram*. This saves the ram space -for dynamic memory needs and makes large lookup tables more -practical. - - - -:: - - #include <avr/pgmspace.h> - - prog_uint16_t myConstants[] PROGMEM = {0, 21140, 702 , 9128, 0, 25764, 8456, - 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,29810,8968,29762,29762,4500}; - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst b/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f9e87c9..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,58 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-increment: - -++ (increment) / -- (decrement) -=============================== - -Description ------------ - -Increment or decrement a variable - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - x++; // increment x by one and returns the old value of x - ++x; // increment x by one and returns the new value of x - - x-- ; // decrement x by one and returns the old value of x - --x ; // decrement x by one and returns the new value of x - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: an integer or long (possibly unsigned) - - - -Returns -------- - -The original or newly incremented / decremented value of the -variable. - - - -Examples --------- - -:: - - x = 2; - y = ++x; // x now contains 3, y contains 3 - y = x--; // x contains 2 again, y still contains 3 - - - -See also --------- - -`+= <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic>`_ -`-= <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/incrementcompound.rst b/docs/source/arduino/incrementcompound.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0005fbc..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/incrementcompound.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-incrementcompound: - -+= , -= , \*= , /= -================== - -Description ------------ - -Perform a mathematical operation on a variable with another -constant or variable. The += (et al) operators are just a -convenient shorthand for the expanded syntax, listed below. - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - x += y; // equivalent to the expression x = x + y; - x -= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x - y; - x *= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x * y; - x /= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x / y; - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: any variable type - - - -y: any variable type or constant - - - -Examples --------- - -:: - - x = 2; - x += 4; // x now contains 6 - x -= 3; // x now contains 3 - x *= 10; // x now contains 30 - x /= 2; // x now contains 15 - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/int.rst b/docs/source/arduino/int.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 2bb3bef..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/int.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,84 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-int: - -int -=== - -Description ------------ - -Integers are your primary datatype for number storage, and store a -2 byte value. This yields a range of -32,768 to 32,767 (minimum -value of -2^15 and a maximum value of (2^15) - 1). - - - -Int's store negative numbers with a technique called -`2's complement math. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2's_complement>`_ -The highest bit, sometimes refered to as the "sign" bit, flags the -number as a negative number. The rest of the bits are inverted and -1 is added. - - - -The Arduino takes care of dealing with negative numbers for you, so -that arithmetic operations work transparently in the expected -manner. There can be an unexpected complication in dealing with the -`bitshift right operator (>>) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bitshift>`_ -however. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int ledPin = 13; - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - int var = val; - - - - -- var - your int variable name -- val - the value you assign to that variable - - - -Coding Tip ----------- - -When variables are made to exceed their maximum capacity they "roll -over" back to their minimum capacitiy, note that this happens in -both directions. - - - -:: - - int x - x = -32,768; - x = x - 1; // x now contains 32,767 - rolls over in neg. direction - - x = 32,767; - x = x + 1; // x now contains -32,768 - rolls over - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `unsigned int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedInt>`_ -- `long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ -- `unsigned long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedLong>`_ -- `Integer Constants <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntegerConstants>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d6bcca4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-intcast: - -int() -===== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -data type. - - - -Syntax ------- - -int(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -int - - - -See also --------- - - -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/integerconstants.rst b/docs/source/arduino/integerconstants.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d60ed24..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/integerconstants.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,130 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-integerconstants: - -Integer Constants -================= - -Integer constants are numbers used directly in a sketch, like -``123``. By default, these numbers are treated as -`int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_'s but you can change -this with the U and L modifiers (see below). - - - -Normally, integer constants are treated as base 10 (decimal) -integers, but special notation (formatters) may be used to enter -numbers in other bases. - - - -:: - - Base Example Formatter Comment - - 10 (decimal) 123 none - - 2 (binary) B1111011 leading 'B' only works with 8 bit values (0 to 255) - characters 0-1 valid - - 8 (octal) 0173 leading "0" characters 0-7 valid - - 16 (hexadecimal) 0x7B leading "0x" characters 0-9, A-F, a-f valid - - - -**Decimal** is base 10. This is the common-sense math with which -you are acquainted. Constants without other prefixes are assumed to -be in decimal format. - - - -Example: -:: - - 101 // same as 101 decimal ((1 * 10^2) + (0 * 10^1) + 1) - -**Binary** is base two. Only characters 0 and 1 are valid. - - - -Example: -:: - - B101 // same as 5 decimal ((1 * 2^2) + (0 * 2^1) + 1) - -The binary formatter only works on bytes (8 bits) between 0 (B0) -and 255 (B11111111). If it is convenient to input an int (16 bits) -in binary form you can do it a two-step procedure such as: - - - -:: - - myInt = (B11001100 * 256) + B10101010; // B11001100 is the high byte - - - -**Octal** is base eight. Only characters 0 through 7 are valid. -Octal values are indicated by the prefix "0" - - - -Example: - -:: - - 0101 // same as 65 decimal ((1 * 8^2) + (0 * 8^1) + 1) - -Warning -It is possible to generate a hard-to-find bug by (unintentionally) -including a leading zero before a constant and having the compiler -unintentionally interpret your constant as octal. -**Hexadecimal (or hex)** is base sixteen. Valid characters are 0 -through 9 and letters A through F; A has the value 10, B is 11, up -to F, which is 15. Hex values are indicated by the prefix "0x". -Note that A-F may be syted in upper or lower case (a-f). - - - -Example: - -:: - - 0x101 // same as 257 decimal ((1 * 16^2) + (0 * 16^1) + 1) - - - -U & L formatters ----------------- - -By default, an integer constant is treated as an -`int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ with the attendant -limitations in values. To specify an integer constant with another -data type, follow it with: - - - - -- a 'u' or 'U' to force the constant into an unsigned data format. - Example: ``33u`` -- a 'l' or 'L' to force the constant into a long data format. - Example: ``100000L`` -- a 'ul' or 'UL' to force the constant into an unsigned long - constant. Example: ``32767ul`` - - - - - -See also --------- - - -- `constants <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ -- `#define <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Define>`_ -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `unsigned int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedInt>`_ -- `long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ -- `unsigned long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedLong>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst b/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 282362b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,59 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-interrupts: - -interrupts() -============ - -Description ------------ - -Re-enables interrupts (after they've been disabled by -`noInterrupts <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/NoInterrupts>`_\ ()). -Interrupts allow certain important tasks to happen in the -background and are enabled by default. Some functions will not work -while interrupts are disabled, and incoming communication may be -ignored. Interrupts can slightly disrupt the timing of code, -however, and may be disabled for particularly critical sections of -code. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None - - - -Returns -------- - -None - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - noInterrupts(); - // critical, time-sensitive code here - interrupts(); - // other code here - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `noInterrupts <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/NoInterrupts>`_\ () -- `attachInterrupt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AttachInterrupt>`_\ () -- `detachInterrupt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DetachInterrupt>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/long.rst b/docs/source/arduino/long.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3d59896..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/long.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-long: - -long -==== - -Description ------------ - -Long variables are extended size variables for number storage, and -store 32 bits (4 bytes), from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. - - - -Example -------- - - - -:: - - long speedOfLight = 186000L; // see Integer Constants for explanation of the 'L' - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - long var = val; - - - - -- var - the long variable name -- val - the value assigned to the variable - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `unsigned int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedInt>`_ -- `unsigned long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedLong>`_ -- `Integer Constants <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntegerConstants>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9f31443..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-longcast: - -long() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the -`long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ data type. - - - -Syntax ------- - -long(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -long - - - -See also --------- - - -- `long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst b/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 165b7b0..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-loop: - -loop() -====== - -After creating a setup() function, which initializes and sets the -initial values, the loop() function does precisely what its name -suggests, and loops consecutively, allowing your program to change -and respond. Use it to actively control the Arduino board. - - - -Example -~~~~~~~ - -:: - - - int buttonPin = 3; - - // setup initializes serial and the button pin - void setup() - { - beginSerial(9600); - pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); - } - - // loop checks the button pin each time, - // and will send serial if it is pressed - void loop() - { - if (digitalRead(buttonPin) == HIGH) - serialWrite('H'); - else - serialWrite('L'); - - delay(1000); - } - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d69f66a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-lowbyte: - -lowByte() -========= - -Description ------------ - -Extracts the low-order (rightmost) byte of a variable (e.g. a -word). - - - -Syntax ------- - -lowByte(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -byte - - - -See also --------- - - -- `highByte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/HighByte>`_\ () -- `word <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/WordCast>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/map.rst b/docs/source/arduino/map.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 65647fa..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/map.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,119 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-map: - -map(value, fromLow, fromHigh, toLow, toHigh) -============================================ - -Description ------------ - -Re-maps a number from one range to another. That is, a **value** of -**fromLow** would get mapped to **toLow**, a value of **fromHigh** -to **toHigh**, values in-between to values in-between, etc. - - - -Does not constrain values to within the range, because out-of-range -values are sometimes intended and useful. The constrain() function -may be used either before or after this function, if limits to the -ranges are desired. - - - -Note that the "lower bounds" of either range may be larger or -smaller than the "upper bounds" so the map() function may be used -to reverse a range of numbers, for example - - - -``y = map(x, 1, 50, 50, 1);`` - - - -The function also handles negative numbers well, so that this -example - - - -``y = map(x, 1, 50, 50, -100);`` - - - -is also valid and works well. - - - -The map() function uses integer math so will not generate -fractions, when the math might indicate that it should do so. -Fractional remainders are truncated, and are not rounded or -averaged. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -value: the number to map - - - -fromLow: the lower bound of the value's current range - - - -fromHigh: the upper bound of the value's current range - - - -toLow: the lower bound of the value's target range - - - -toHigh: the upper bound of the value's target range - - - -Returns -------- - -The mapped value. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - /* Map an analog value to 8 bits (0 to 255) */ - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - int val = analogRead(0); - val = map(val, 0, 1023, 0, 255); - analogWrite(9, val); - } - - - -Appendix -~~~~~~~~ - -For the mathematically inclined, here's the whole function - - - -:: - - long map(long x, long in_min, long in_max, long out_min, long out_max) - { - return (x - in_min) * (out_max - out_min) / (in_max - in_min) + out_min; - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `constrain <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constrain>`_\ () diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/max.rst b/docs/source/arduino/max.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 375625c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/max.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-max: - -max(x, y) -========= - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the maximum of two numbers. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the first number, any data type - - - -y: the second number, any data type - - - -Returns -------- - -The larger of the two parameter values. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - sensVal = max(senVal, 20); // assigns sensVal to the larger of sensVal or 20 - // (effectively ensuring that it is at least 20) - -Note ----- - -Perhaps counter-intuitively, max() is often used to constrain the -lower end of a variable's range, while min() is used to constrain -the upper end of the range. - - - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way the max() function is implemented, avoid using -other functions inside the brackets, it may lead to incorrect -results - - - -:: - - max(a--, 0); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - a--; // use this instead - - max(a, 0); // keep other math outside the function - - - -See also --------- - - -- `min <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Min>`_\ () -- `constrain <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constrain>`_\ () diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst b/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst deleted file mode 100644 index cdee497..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,66 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-micros: - -micros() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Returns the number of microseconds since the Arduino board began -running the current program. This number will overflow (go back to -zero), after approximately 70 minutes. On 16 MHz Arduino boards -(e.g. Duemilanove and Nano), this function has a resolution of four -microseconds (i.e. the value returned is always a multiple of -four). On 8 MHz Arduino boards (e.g. the LilyPad), this function -has a resolution of eight microseconds. - - - -*Note*: there are 1,000 microseconds in a millisecond and 1,000,000 -microseconds in a second. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None - - - -Returns -------- - -Number of microseconds since the program started (*unsigned long*) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned long time; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - } - void loop(){ - Serial.print("Time: "); - time = micros(); - //prints time since program started - Serial.println(time); - // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data - delay(1000); - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `millis <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Millis>`_\ () -- `delay <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Delay>`_\ () -- `delayMicroseconds <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DelayMicroseconds>`_\ () - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst b/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 009517d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,67 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-millis: - -millis() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Returns the number of milliseconds since the Arduino board began -running the current program. This number will overflow (go back to -zero), after approximately 50 days. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None - - - -Returns -------- - -Number of milliseconds since the program started (*unsigned long*) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned long time; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - } - void loop(){ - Serial.print("Time: "); - time = millis(); - //prints time since program started - Serial.println(time); - // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data - delay(1000); - } - - - -Tip: ----- - -Note that the parameter for millis is an unsigned long, errors may -be generated if a programmer tries to do math with other datatypes -such as ints. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `micros <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Micros>`_\ () -- `delay <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Delay>`_\ () -- `delayMicroseconds <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DelayMicroseconds>`_\ () -- `Tutorial: Blink Without Delay <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/BlinkWithoutDelay>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/min.rst b/docs/source/arduino/min.rst deleted file mode 100644 index fdd7a5f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/min.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-min: - -min(x, y) -========= - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the minimum of two numbers. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the first number, any data type - - - -y: the second number, any data type - - - -Returns -------- - -The smaller of the two numbers. - - - -Examples --------- - -:: - - sensVal = min(sensVal, 100); // assigns sensVal to the smaller of sensVal or 100 - // ensuring that it never gets above 100. - -Note ----- - -Perhaps counter-intuitively, max() is often used to constrain the -lower end of a variable's range, while min() is used to constrain -the upper end of the range. - - - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way the min() function is implemented, avoid using -other functions inside the brackets, it may lead to incorrect -results - - - -:: - - min(a++, 100); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - a++; - min(a, 100); // use this instead - keep other math outside the function - - - -See also --------- - - -- `max <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Max>`_\ () -- `constrain <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constrain>`_\ () diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst b/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 195d15b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,84 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-modulo: - -% (modulo) -========== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the remainder when one integer is divided by another. It -is useful for keeping a variable within a particular range (e.g. -the size of an array). - - - -Syntax ------- - -result = dividend % divisor - - - -Parameters ----------- - -dividend: the number to be divided - - - -divisor: the number to divide by - - - -Returns -------- - -the remainder - - - -Examples --------- - -:: - - x = 7 % 5; // x now contains 2 - x = 9 % 5; // x now contains 4 - x = 5 % 5; // x now contains 0 - x = 4 % 5; // x now contains 4 - - - -Example Code ------------- - -:: - - /* update one value in an array each time through a loop */ - - int values[10]; - int i = 0; - - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - values[i] = analogRead(0); - i = (i + 1) % 10; // modulo operator rolls over variable - } - - - -Tip ---- - -The modulo operator does not work on floats. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `division <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst b/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 10d504d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-nointerrupts: - -noInterrupts() -============== - -Description ------------ - -Disables interrupts (you can re-enable them with interrupts()). -Interrupts allow certain important tasks to happen in the -background and are enabled by default. Some functions will not work -while interrupts are disabled, and incoming communication may be -ignored. Interrupts can slightly disrupt the timing of code, -however, and may be disabled for particularly critical sections of -code. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None. - - - -Returns -------- - -None. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - noInterrupts(); - // critical, time-sensitive code here - interrupts(); - // other code here - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `interrupts <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Interrupts>`_\ () - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst b/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 4390b52..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-notone: - -noTone() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Stops the generation of a square wave triggered by -`tone <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Tone>`_\ (). Has no effect if -no tone is being generated. - - - -**NOTE:** if you want to play different pitches on multiple pins, -you need to call noTone() on one pin before calling tone() on the -next pin. - - - -Syntax ------- - -noTone(pin) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin on which to stop generating the tone - - - -Returns -------- - -nothing - - - -See also --------- - - -- `tone <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Tone>`_ () - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 34c7998..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,67 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-pinmode: - -pinMode() -========= - -.. doxygenfunction:: pinMode - -.. doxygenenum:: WiringPinMode - -Discussion ----------- - -pinMode() is usually called within :ref:`arduino-setup` in order to -configure a pin for a certain usage (although it may be called from -anywhere). - - -Example -------- - - :: - - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on - delay(1000); // waits for a second - digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off - delay(1000); // waits for a second - } - - - -Arduino Compatibility Note --------------------------- - -The libmaple implementation of pinMode() supports OUTPUT and INPUT -modes with a meaning identical to that of the Arduino function. - -INPUT_ANALOG and PWM modes were added because the Maple does not -distinguish between analog and digital pins the same way the Arduino -does. Unlike the Arduino, you **must call pinMode**\ () to set up a pin -for these purposes before a call to, e.g., :ref:`arduino-analogRead`. -In practice, this should only add a few lines of pinMode() calls to -your :ref:`arduino-setup` function. - -OUTPUT_OPEN_DRAIN, INPUT_PULLUP, INPUT_PULLDOWN, and PWM_OPEN_DRAIN -modes represent functionality not currently available on Arduino -boards. - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`arduino-constants` -- :ref:`arduino-digitalwrite` -- :ref:`arduino-digitalread` -- Maple :ref:`GPIO <gpio>` reference page -- Arduino `pinMode() <http://www.arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode>`_ reference diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 4e4b9e5..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-pointer: - -The pointer operators -===================== - -& (reference) and \* (dereference) -================================== - -Pointers are one of the more complicated subjects for beginners in -learning C, and it is possible to write the vast majority of -Arduino sketches without ever encountering pointers. However for -manipulating certain data structures, the use of pointers can -simplify the code, and and knowledge of manipulating pointers is -handy to have in one's toolkit. - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3a09481..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-pow: - -pow(base, exponent) -=================== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the value of a number raised to a power. Pow() can be -used to raise a number to a fractional power. This is useful for -generating exponential mapping of values or curves. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -base: the number (*float*) - - - -exponent: the power to which the base is raised (*float*) - - - -Returns -------- - -The result of the exponentiation (*double*) - - - -Example -------- - -See the `fscale <http://arduino.cc/playground/Main/Fscale>`_ -function in the code library. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `sqrt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Sqrt>`_\ () -- `float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ -- `double <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Double>`_ diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 568d992..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,79 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-pulsein: - -pulseIn() -========= - -Description ------------ - -Reads a pulse (either HIGH or LOW) on a pin. For example, if -**value** is **HIGH**, **pulseIn()** waits for the pin to go -**HIGH**, starts timing, then waits for the pin to go **LOW** and -stops timing. Returns the length of the pulse in microseconds. -Gives up and returns 0 if no pulse starts within a specified time -out. - - - -The timing of this function has been determined empirically and -will probably show errors in longer pulses. Works on pulses from 10 -microseconds to 3 minutes in length. - - - -Syntax ------- - -pulseIn(pin, value) -pulseIn(pin, value, timeout) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the number of the pin on which you want to read the pulse. -(*int*) - - - -value: type of pulse to read: either -`HIGH <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_ or -`LOW <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants>`_. (*int*) - - - -timeout (optional): the number of microseconds to wait for the -pulse to start; default is one second (*unsigned long*) - - - -Returns -------- - -the length of the pulse (in microseconds) or 0 if no pulse started -before the timeout (*unsigned long*) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - - int pin = 7; - unsigned long duration; - - void setup() - { - pinMode(pin, INPUT); - } - - void loop() - { - duration = pulseIn(pin, HIGH); - } - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/random.rst b/docs/source/arduino/random.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 44f122a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/random.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,92 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-random: - -random() -======== - -Description ------------ - -The random function generates pseudo-random numbers. - - - -Syntax ------- - -random(max) -random(min, max) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -min - lower bound of the random value, inclusive *(optional)* - - - -max - upper bound of the random value, exclusive - - - -Returns -------- - -a random number between min and max-1 (*long*) - - - -Note: ------ - -If it is important for a sequence of values generated by random() -to differ, on subsequent executions of a sketch, use randomSeed() -to initialize the random number generator with a fairly random -input, such as analogRead() on an unconnected pin. - - - -Conversely, it can occasionally be useful to use pseudo-random -sequences that repeat exactly. This can be accomplished by calling -randomSeed() with a fixed number, before starting the random -sequence. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - long randNumber; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - - // if analog input pin 0 is unconnected, random analog - // noise will cause the call to randomSeed() to generate - // different seed numbers each time the sketch runs. - // randomSeed() will then shuffle the random function. - randomSeed(analogRead(0)); - } - - void loop() { - // print a random number from 0 to 299 - randNumber = random(300); - Serial.println(randNumber); - - // print a random number from 10 to 19 - randNumber = random(10, 20); - Serial.println(randNumber); - - delay(50); - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `randomSeed <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/RandomSeed>`_\ () - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst b/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b0b5d71..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-randomseed: - -randomSeed(seed) -================ - -Description ------------ - -randomSeed() initializes the pseudo-random number generator, -causing it to start at an arbitrary point in its random sequence. -This sequence, while very long, and random, is always the same. - - - -If it is important for a sequence of values generated by random() -to differ, on subsequent executions of a sketch, use randomSeed() -to initialize the random number generator with a fairly random -input, such as analogRead() on an unconnected pin. - - - -Conversely, it can occasionally be useful to use pseudo-random -sequences that repeat exactly. This can be accomplished by calling -randomSeed() with a fixed number, before starting the random -sequence. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -long, int - pass a number to generate the seed. - - - -Returns -------- - -no returns - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - long randNumber; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - randomSeed(analogRead(0)); - } - - void loop(){ - randNumber = random(300); - Serial.println(randNumber); - - delay(50); - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `random <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Random>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/return.rst b/docs/source/arduino/return.rst deleted file mode 100644 index ae3b37d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/return.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,69 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-return: - -return -====== - -Terminate a function and return a value from a function to the -calling function, if desired. - - - -Syntax: -------- - -return; - - - -return value; // both forms are valid - - - -Parameters ----------- - -value: any variable or constant type - - - -Examples: ---------- - -A function to compare a sensor input to a threshold - -:: - - int checkSensor(){ - if (analogRead(0) > 400) { - return 1; - else{ - return 0; - } - } - - - -The return keyword is handy to test a section of code without -having to "comment out" large sections of possibly buggy code. - - - -:: - - void loop(){ - - // brilliant code idea to test here - - return; - - // the rest of a dysfunctional sketch here - // this code will never be executed - } - - - -See also --------- - -`comments <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Comments>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst b/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst deleted file mode 100644 index bb56246..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-scope: - -Variable Scope -============== - -Variables in the C programming language, which Arduino uses, have a -property called *scope*. This is in contrast to languages such as -BASIC where every variable is a *global* variable. - - - -A global variable is one that can be *seen* by every function in a -program. Local variables are only visible to the function in which -they are declared. In the Arduino environment, any variable -declared outside of a function (e.g. setup(), loop(), etc. ), is a -global variable. - - - -When programs start to get larger and more complex, local variables -are a useful way to insure that only one function has access to its -own variables. This prevents programming errors when one function -inadvertently modifies variables used by another function. - - - -It is also sometimes handy to declare and initialize a variable -inside a *for* loop. This creates a variable that can only be -accessed from inside the for-loop brackets. - - - -Example: --------- - -:: - - int gPWMval; // any function will see this variable - - void setup() - { - // ... - } - - void loop() - { - int i; // "i" is only "visible" inside of "loop" - float f; // "f" is only "visible" inside of "loop" - // ... - - for (int j = 0; j <100; j++){ - // variable j can only be accessed inside the for-loop brackets - } - - } - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst b/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b3cc8c4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-semicolon: - -; semicolon -=========== - -Used to end a statement. - - - -Example -~~~~~~~ - -:: - - int a = 13; - -Tip ---- - -Forgetting to end a line in a semicolon will result in a compiler -error. The error text may be obvious, and refer to a missing -semicolon, or it may not. If an impenetrable or seemingly illogical -compiler error comes up, one of the first things to check is a -missing semicolon, in the immediate vicinity, preceding the line at -which the compiler complained. - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst b/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 31ce06c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,62 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-serial: - -Serial -====== - -Used for communication between the Arduino board and a computer or -other devices. All Arduino boards have at least one serial port -(also known as a UART or USART): **Serial**. It communicates on -digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX) as well as with the computer via -USB. Thus, if you use these functions, you cannot also use pins 0 -and 1 for digital input or output. - - - -You can use the Arduino environment's built-in serial monitor to -communicate with an Arduino board. Click the serial monitor button -in the toolbar and select the same baud rate used in the call to -begin(). - - - -The Arduino Mega has three additional serial ports: **Serial1** on -pins 19 (RX) and 18 (TX), **Serial2** on pins 17 (RX) and 16 (TX), -**Serial3** on pins 15 (RX) and 14 (TX). To use these pins to -communicate with your personal computer, you will need an -additional USB-to-serial adaptor, as they are not connected to the -Mega's USB-to-serial adaptor. To use them to communicate with an -external TTL serial device, connect the TX pin to your device's RX -pin, the RX to your device's TX pin, and the ground of your Mega to -your device's ground. (Don't connect these pins directly to an -RS232 serial port; they operate at +/- 12V and can damage your -Arduino board.) - - - -Functions ---------- - - -- `begin <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Begin>`_\ () -- `end <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/End>`_\ () -- `available <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Available>`_\ () -- `read <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Read>`_\ () -- `flush <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Flush>`_\ () -- `print <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Print>`_\ () -- `println <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Println>`_\ () -- `write <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Write>`_\ () - - - -Examples --------- - - -- `ASCII Table <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/ASCIITable>`_ -- `Dimmer <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Dimmer>`_ -- `Graph <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Graph>`_ -- `Physical Pixel <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/PhysicalPixel>`_ -- `Virtual Color Mixer <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/VirtualColorMixer>`_ -- `Serial Call Response <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/SerialCallResponse>`_ -- `Serial Call Response ASCII <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/SerialCallResponseASCII>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst b/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 05911ed..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-setup: - -setup() -======= - -The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to -initialize variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The -setup function will only run once, after each powerup or reset of -the Arduino board. - - - -Example -~~~~~~~ - -:: - - - int buttonPin = 3; - - void setup() - { - Serial.begin(9600); - pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); - } - - void loop() - { - // ... - } - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst b/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 2277cf1..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,133 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-shiftout: - -shiftOut() -========== - -Description ------------ - -Shifts out a byte of data one bit at a time. Starts from either the -most (i.e. the leftmost) or least (rightmost) significant bit. Each -bit is written in turn to a data pin, after which a clock pin is -pulsed to indicate that the bit is available. - - - -This is a software implementation; Arduino (as of 0019) also -provides an `SPI library <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SPI>`_ -that uses the hardware implementation. - - - -Syntax ------- - -shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, bitOrder, value) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -dataPin: the pin on which to output each bit (*int*) - - - -clockPin: the pin to toggle once the **dataPin** has been set to -the correct value (*int*) - - - -bitOrder: which order to shift out the bits; either **MSBFIRST** or -**LSBFIRST**. -(Most Significant Bit First, or, Least Significant Bit First) - - - -value: the data to shift out. (*byte*) - - - -Returns -------- - -None - - - -Note ----- - -The **dataPin** and **clockPin** must already be configured as -outputs by a call to -`pinMode <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode>`_\ (). - - - -**shiftOut** is currently written to output 1 byte (8 bits) so it -requires a two step operation to output values larger than 255. - -:: - - // Do this for MSBFIRST serial - int data = 500; - // shift out highbyte - shiftOut(dataPin, clock, MSBFIRST, (data >> 8)); - // shift out lowbyte - shiftOut(data, clock, MSBFIRST, data); - - // Or do this for LSBFIRST serial - data = 500; - // shift out lowbyte - shiftOut(dataPin, clock, LSBFIRST, data); - // shift out highbyte - shiftOut(dataPin, clock, LSBFIRST, (data >> 8)); - - - -Example -------- - -*For accompanying circuit, see the `tutorial on controlling a 74HC595 shift register <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/ShiftOut>`_.* - - - -:: - - //**************************************************************// - // Name : shiftOutCode, Hello World // - // Author : Carlyn Maw,Tom Igoe // - // Date : 25 Oct, 2006 // - // Version : 1.0 // - // Notes : Code for using a 74HC595 Shift Register // - // : to count from 0 to 255 // - //**************************************************************** - - //Pin connected to ST_CP of 74HC595 - int latchPin = 8; - //Pin connected to SH_CP of 74HC595 - int clockPin = 12; - ////Pin connected to DS of 74HC595 - int dataPin = 11; - - void setup() { - //set pins to output because they are addressed in the main loop - pinMode(latchPin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(clockPin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(dataPin, OUTPUT); - } - - void loop() { - //count up routine - for (int j = 0; j < 256; j++) { - //ground latchPin and hold low for as long as you are transmitting - digitalWrite(latchPin, LOW); - shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, LSBFIRST, j); - //return the latch pin high to signal chip that it - //no longer needs to listen for information - digitalWrite(latchPin, HIGH); - delay(1000); - } - } - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3a06a8f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-sin: - -sin(rad) -======== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the sine of an angle (in radians). The result will be -between -1 and 1. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -rad: the angle in radians (*float*) - - - -Returns -------- - -the sine of the angle (*double*) - - - -See also --------- - - -- `cos <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Cos>`_\ () -- `tan <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Tan>`_\ () -- `float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ -- `double <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Double>`_ diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst deleted file mode 100644 index a95dfbf..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-sizeof: - -sizeof -====== - -Description ------------ - -The sizeof operator returns the number of bytes in a variable type, -or the number of bytes occupied by an array. - - - -Syntax ------- - -sizeof(variable) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -variable: any variable type or array (e.g. int, float, byte) - - - -Example code ------------- - -The sizeof operator is useful for dealing with arrays (such as -strings) where it is convenient to be able to change the size of -the array without breaking other parts of the program. - - - -This program prints out a text string one character at a time. Try -changing the text phrase. - - - -:: - - char myStr[] = "this is a test"; - int i; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop() { - for (i = 0; i < sizeof(myStr) - 1; i++){ - Serial.print(i, DEC); - Serial.print(" = "); - Serial.println(myStr[i], BYTE); - } - } - - -Note that sizeof returns the total number of bytes. So for larger -variable types such as ints, the for loop would look something like -this. - - - -:: - - for (i = 0; i < (sizeof(myInts)/sizeof(int)) - 1; i++) { - // do something with myInts[i] - } - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5b8a73e..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-sqrt: - -sqrt(x) -======= - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the square root of a number. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: the number, any data type - - - -Returns -------- - -double, the number's square root. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `pow <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Pow>`_\ () -- `sq <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Sq>`_\ () - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst b/docs/source/arduino/static.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1c0340e..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-static: - -Static -====== - -The static keyword is used to create variables that are visible to -only one function. However unlike local variables that get created -and destroyed every time a function is called, static variables -persist beyond the function call, preserving their data between -function calls. - - - -Variables declared as static will only be created and initialized -the first time a function is called. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - - /* RandomWalk - * Paul Badger 2007 - * RandomWalk wanders up and down randomly between two - * endpoints. The maximum move in one loop is governed by - * the parameter "stepsize". - * A static variable is moved up and down a random amount. - * This technique is also known as "pink noise" and "drunken walk". - */ - - #define randomWalkLowRange -20 - #define randomWalkHighRange 20 - int stepsize; - - int thisTime; - int total; - - void setup() - { - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop() - { // tetst randomWalk function - stepsize = 5; - thisTime = randomWalk(stepsize); - Serial.println(thisTime); - delay(10); - } - - int randomWalk(int moveSize){ - static int place; // variable to store value in random walk - declared static so that it stores - // values in between function calls, but no other functions can change its value - - place = place + (random(-moveSize, moveSize + 1)); - - if (place < randomWalkLowRange){ // check lower and upper limits - place = place + (randomWalkLowRange - place); // reflect number back in positive direction - } - else if(place > randomWalkHighRange){ - place = place - (place - randomWalkHighRange); // reflect number back in negative direction - } - - return place; - } - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/string.rst b/docs/source/arduino/string.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b841728..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/string.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,158 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-string: - -string -====== - -Description ------------ - -Text strings can be represented in two ways. you can use the String -data type, which is part of the core as of version 0019, or you can -make a string out of an array of type char and null-terminate it. -This page described the latter method. For more details on the -String object, which gives you more functionality at the cost of -more memory, see the -`String object <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringObject>`_ -page. - - - -Examples --------- - -All of the following are valid declarations for strings. - -:: - - char Str1[15]; - char Str2[8] = {'a', 'r', 'd', 'u', 'i', 'n', 'o'}; - char Str3[8] = {'a', 'r', 'd', 'u', 'i', 'n', 'o', '\0'}; - char Str4[ ] = "arduino"; - char Str5[8] = "arduino"; - char Str6[15] = "arduino"; - - - -**Possibilities for declaring strings** - - - - -- Declare an array of chars without initializing it as in Str1 -- Declare an array of chars (with one extra char) and the compiler - will add the required null character, as in Str2 -- Explicitly add the null character, Str3 -- Initialize with a string constant in quotation marks; the - compiler will size the array to fit the string constant and a - terminating null character, Str4 -- Initialize the array with an explicit size and string constant, - Str5 -- Initialize the array, leaving extra space for a larger string, - Str6 - - - -**Null termination** - - - -Generally, strings are terminated with a null character (ASCII code -0). This allows functions (like Serial.print()) to tell where the -end of a string is. Otherwise, they would continue reading -subsequent bytes of memory that aren't actually part of the -string. - - - -This means that your string needs to have space for one more -character than the text you want it to contain. That is why Str2 -and Str5 need to be eight characters, even though "arduino" is only -seven - the last position is automatically filled with a null -character. Str4 will be automatically sized to eight characters, -one for the extra null. In Str3, we've explicitly included the null -character (written '\\0') ourselves. - - - -Note that it's possible to have a string without a final null -character (e.g. if you had specified the length of Str2 as seven -instead of eight). This will break most functions that use strings, -so you shouldn't do it intentionally. If you notice something -behaving strangely (operating on characters not in the string), -however, this could be the problem. - - - -**Single quotes or double quotes?** - - - -Strings are always defined inside double quotes ("Abc") and -characters are always defined inside single quotes('A'). - - - -**Wrapping long strings** - - - -You can wrap long strings like this: - -:: - - char myString[] = "This is the first line" - " this is the second line" - " etcetera"; - - - -**Arrays of strings** - - - -It is often convenient, when working with large amounts of text, -such as a project with an LCD display, to setup an array of -strings. Because strings themselves are arrays, this is in actually -an example of a two-dimensional array. - - - -In the code below, the asterisk after the datatype char "char\*" -indicates that this is an array of "pointers". All array names are -actually pointers, so this is required to make an array of arrays. -Pointers are one of the more esoteric parts of C for beginners to -understand, but it isn't necessary to understand pointers in detail -to use them effectively here. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - char* myStrings[]={"This is string 1", "This is string 2", "This is string 3", - "This is string 4", "This is string 5","This is string 6"}; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop(){ - for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++){ - Serial.println(myStrings[i]); - delay(500); - } - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `array <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Array>`_ -- `PROGMEM <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PROGMEM>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst b/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst deleted file mode 100644 index ffee295..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,88 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-stringobject: - -String -====== - -Description ------------ - -The String class, part of the core as of version 0019, allows you -to use and manipulate strings of text in more complex ways than -`character arrays <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/String>`_ do. You -can concatenate Strings, append to them, search for and replace -substrings, and more. It takes more memory than a simple character -array, but it is also more useful. - - - -For reference, character arrays are referred to as strings with a -small s, and instances of the String class are referred to as -Strings with a capital S. Note that constant strings, specified in -"double quotes" are treated as char arrays, not instances of the -String class. - - - -Functions ---------- - - -- `String <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringConstructor>`_\ () -- `charAt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringCharAt>`_\ () -- `compareTo <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringCompareTo>`_\ () -- `concat <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringConcat>`_\ () -- `endsWith <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringEndsWith>`_\ () -- `equals <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringEquals>`_\ () -- `equalsIgnoreCase <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringEqualsIgnoreCase>`_\ () -- `getBytes <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringGetBytes>`_\ () -- `indexOf <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringIndexOf>`_\ () -- `lastIndexOf <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringLastIndexOf>`_\ () -- `length <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringLength>`_\ () -- `replace <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringReplace>`_\ () -- `setCharAt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringSetCharAt>`_\ () -- `startsWith <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringStartsWith>`_\ () -- `substring <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringSubstring>`_\ () -- `toCharArray <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringToCharArray>`_\ () -- `toLowerCase <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringToLowerCase>`_\ () -- `toUpperCase <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringToUpperCase>`_\ () -- `trim <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringTrim>`_\ () - - - -Operators ---------- - - -- `[] (element access) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringBrackets>`_ -- `+ (concatenation) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringPlus>`_ -- `== (comparison) <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/StringComparison>`_ - - - -Examples --------- - - -- `StringConstructors <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringConstructors>`_ -- `StringAdditionOperator <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringAdditionOperator>`_ -- `StringIndexOf <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringIndexOf>`_ -- `StringAppendOperator <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringAppendOperator>`_ -- `StringLengthTrim <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringLengthTrim>`_ -- `StringCaseChanges <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringCaseChanges>`_ -- `StringReplace <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringReplace>`_ -- `StringCharacters <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringCharacters>`_ -- `StringStartsWithEndsWith <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringStartsWithEndsWith>`_ -- `StringComparisonOperators <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringComparisonOperators>`_ -- `StringSubstring <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/StringSubstring>`_ - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `string <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/String>`_: character - arrays -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst b/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 28791eb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,77 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-switchcase: - -switch / case statements -======================== - -Like **if** statements, **switch...case** controls the flow of -programs by allowing programmers to specify different code that -should be executed in various conditions. In particular, a switch -statement compares the value of a variable to the values specified -in case statements. When a case statement is found whose value -matches that of the variable, the code in that case statement is -run. - - - -The **break** keyword exits the switch statement, and is typically -used at the end of each case. Without a break statement, the switch -statement will continue executing the following expressions -("falling-through") until a break, or the end of the switch -statement is reached. - - - -Example -~~~~~~~ - -:: - - switch (var) { - case 1: - //do something when var equals 1 - break; - case 2: - //do something when var equals 2 - break; - default: - // if nothing else matches, do the default - // default is optional - } - - - -Syntax -~~~~~~ - -:: - - switch (var) { - case label: - // statements - break; - case label: - // statements - break; - default: - // statements - } - - - -Parameters -~~~~~~~~~~ - -var: the variable whose value to compare to the various cases - - - -label: a value to compare the variable to - - - -See also: ---------- - -`if...else <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Else>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst b/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f31b357..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-tan: - -tan(rad) -======== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the tangent of an angle (in radians). The result will be -between negative infinity and infinity. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -rad: the angle in radians (*float*) - - - -Returns -------- - -The tangent of the angle (*double*) - - - -See also --------- - - -- `sin <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Sin>`_\ () -- `cos <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Cos>`_\ () -- `float <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float>`_ -- `double <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Double>`_ diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst b/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst deleted file mode 100644 index c7b1e44..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,78 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-tone: - -tone() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Generates a square wave of the specified frequency (and 50% duty -cycle) on a pin. A duration can be specified, otherwise the wave -continues until a call to -`noTone <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/NoTone>`_\ (). The pin can be -connected to a piezo buzzer or other speaker to play tones. - - - -Only one tone can be generated at a time. If a tone is already -playing on a different pin, the call to tone() will have no effect. -If the tone is playing on the same pin, the call will set its -frequency. - - - -Use of the tone() function will interfere with PWM output on pins 3 -and 11 (on boards other than the Mega). - - - -**NOTE:** if you want to play different pitches on multiple pins, -you need to call noTone() on one pin before calling tone() on the -next pin. - - - -Syntax ------- - -tone(pin, frequency) -tone(pin, frequency, duration) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin on which to generate the tone - - - -frequency: the frequency of the tone in hertz - - - -duration: the duration of the tone in milliseconds (optional) - - - -Returns -------- - -nothing - - - -See also --------- - - -- `noTone <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/NoTone>`_\ () -- `analogWrite <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogWrite>`_\ () -- `Tutorial:Tone <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Tone>`_ -- `Tutorial:Pitch follower <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Tone2>`_ -- `Tutorial:Simple Keyboard <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Tone3>`_ -- `Tutorial: multiple tones <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Tone4>`_ - - -- `Tutorial: PWM <http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/PWM>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f846105..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-unsignedchar: - -unsigned char -============= - -Description ------------ - -An unsigned data type that occupies 1 byte of memory. Same as the -`byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ datatype. - - - -The unsigned char datatype encodes numbers from 0 to 255. - - - -For consistency of Arduino programming style, the *byte* data type -is to be preferred. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned char myChar = 240; - - - -See also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `array <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Array>`_ -- `Serial.println <http://arduino.cc/en/Serial/Println>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 10835fe..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,77 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-unsignedint: - -unsigned int -============ - -Description ------------ - -Unsigned ints (unsigned integers) are the same as ints in that they -store a 2 byte value. Instead of storing negative numbers however -they only store positive values, yielding a useful range of 0 to -65,535 (2^16) - 1). - - - -The difference between unsigned ints and (signed) ints, lies in the -way the highest bit, sometimes refered to as the "sign" bit, is -interpreted. In the Arduino int type (which is signed), if the high -bit is a "1", the number is interpreted as a negative number, and -the other 15 bits are interpreted with -`2's complement math. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2's_complement>`_ - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned int ledPin = 13; - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - unsigned int var = val; - - - - -- var - your unsigned int variable name -- val - the value you assign to that variable - - - -Coding Tip ----------- - -When variables are made to exceed their maximum capacity they "roll -over" back to their minimum capacitiy, note that this happens in -both directions - - - -:: - - unsigned int x - x = 0; - x = x - 1; // x now contains 65535 - rolls over in neg direction - x = x + 1; // x now contains 0 - rolls over - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ -- `unsigned long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedLong>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1bdb434..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,63 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-unsignedlong: - -unsigned long -============= - -Description ------------ - -Unsigned long variables are extended size variables for number -storage, and store 32 bits (4 bytes). Unlike standard longs -unsigned longs won't store negative numbers, making their range -from 0 to 4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 1). - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned long time; - - void setup() - { - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop() - { - Serial.print("Time: "); - time = millis(); - //prints time since program started - Serial.println(time); - // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data - delay(1000); - } - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - unsigned long var = val; - - - - -- var - your long variable name -- val - the value you assign to that variable - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int>`_ -- `unsigned int <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedInt>`_ -- `long <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long>`_ -- `Variable Declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/VariableDeclaration>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst b/docs/source/arduino/void.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 00166b6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-void: - -void -==== - -The void keyword is used only in function declarations. It -indicates that the function is expected to return no information to -the function from which it was called. - - - -Example: --------- - -:: - - // actions are performed in the functions "setup" and "loop" - // but no information is reported to the larger program - - void setup() - { - // ... - } - - void loop() - { - // ... - } - - - - -See also --------- - -`function declaration <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/FunctionDeclaration>`_ - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 4212ac5..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-volatile: - -volatile keyword -================ - -volatile is a keyword known as a variable *qualifier*, it is -usually used before the datatype of a variable, to modify the way -in which the compiler and subsequent program treats the variable. - - - -Declaring a variable volatile is a directive to the compiler. The -compiler is software which translates your C/C++ code into the -machine code, which are the real instructions for the Atmega chip -in the Arduino. - - - -Specifically, it directs the compiler to load the variable from RAM -and not from a storage register, which is a temporary memory -location where program variables are stored and manipulated. Under -certain conditions, the value for a variable stored in registers -can be inaccurate. - - - -A variable should be declared volatile whenever its value can be -changed by something beyond the control of the code section in -which it appears, such as a concurrently executing thread. In the -Arduino, the only place that this is likely to occur is in sections -of code associated with interrupts, called an interrupt service -routine. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - // toggles LED when interrupt pin changes state - - int pin = 13; - volatile int state = LOW; - - void setup() - { - pinMode(pin, OUTPUT); - attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(pin, state); - } - - void blink() - { - state = !state; - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `AttachInterrupt <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AttachInterrupt>`_ - - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/while.rst b/docs/source/arduino/while.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5155f09..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/while.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-while: - -while loops -=========== - -Description ------------ - -**while** loops will loop continuously, and infinitely, until the -expression inside the parenthesis, () becomes false. Something must -change the tested variable, or the **while** loop will never exit. -This could be in your code, such as an incremented variable, or an -external condition, such as testing a sensor. - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - while(expression){ - // statement(s) - } - - - -Parameters ----------- - -expression - a (boolean) C statement that evaluates to true or -false - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - var = 0; - while(var < 200){ - // do something repetitive 200 times - var++; - } - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/word.rst b/docs/source/arduino/word.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 39b3a0d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/word.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-word: - -word -==== - -Description ------------ - -A word stores a 16-bit unsigned number, from 0 to 65535. Same as an -unsigned int. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - word w = 10000; - - - -See also --------- - - -- `byte <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte>`_ -- `word <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/WordCast>`_\ () - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5ef821c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-wordcast: - -word() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Convert a value to the -`word <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Word>`_ data type or create a -word from two bytes. - - - -Syntax ------- - -word(x) -word(h, l) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -h: the high-order (leftmost) byte of the word - - - -l: the low-order (rightmost) byte of the word - - - -Returns -------- - -word - - - -See also --------- - - -- `word <http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Word>`_ - - |