From 95783b750fda95f5f4c1fac00ab24da03b31b517 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Marti Bolivar Date: Mon, 25 Oct 2010 21:15:28 -0400 Subject: arduino language reference nearing completion, properly CC-BY-SA 3.0 attributed --- docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst | 46 +++++++++++++++++++++++----------------- 1 file changed, 27 insertions(+), 19 deletions(-) (limited to 'docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst') diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst index dc6a1d6..0682391 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst @@ -1,42 +1,50 @@ .. _arduino-highbyte: -highByte() -========== - -Description ------------ - -Extracts the high-order (leftmost) byte of a word (or the second -lowest byte of a larger data type). - - +highByte(x) +=========== -Syntax ------- +.. warning:: This macro is provided for compatibility with Arduino + only. It returns the second-least significant byte in an integral + value. It makes sense to call this the "high" byte on a 16-bit + microcontroller like the Atmel chips on Arduinos, but it makes no + sense at all on a 32-bit microcontroller like the STM32s in the + Maple line. -highByte(x) + In short: we provide this so that existing Arduino code works as + expected, but **strongly discourage its use** in new programs. +Description +----------- +(Macro) Extracts the second lowest byte of an integral data type. Parameters ---------- -x: a value of any type +**x**: a value of any integral type. +Returns +------- +Second lowest byte in **x**. -Returns +Example ------- -byte +:: + + int x = 0xDEADBEEF; + SerialUSB.println(x, HEX); // prints "BE" +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- +The Maple version of ``highByte()`` is compatible with Arduino. -See also +See Also -------- +- :ref:`lowByte() ` -- `lowByte `_\ () -- `word `_\ () -- cgit v1.2.3 From 8cb17946097c3c9e8bf3165a9405d99f844e7282 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Marti Bolivar Date: Wed, 17 Nov 2010 12:43:21 -0500 Subject: arduino docs nearing completion; CC-BY-SA 3.0 notice appended to all of them --- docs/source/arduino/abs.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/array.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bit.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/braces.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/break.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/byte.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt | 2 +- docs/source/arduino/char.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/comments.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/const.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/constants.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/continue.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/cos.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/define.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/delay.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/double.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/else.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/float.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/for.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/goto.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/if.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/include.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/increment.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/int.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/long.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/loop.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/map.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/max.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/micros.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/millis.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/min.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/notone.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/pow.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/random.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/return.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/scope.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/serial.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/setup.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/sin.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/sq.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/static.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/string.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/tan.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/tone.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/variables.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/void.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/while.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/word.rst | 3 +++ docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst | 3 +++ 96 files changed, 286 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) (limited to 'docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst') diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst b/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst index ed7296a..0ec6b47 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst @@ -37,3 +37,6 @@ Arduino Compatibility --------------------- Maple's implementation of ``abs()`` is compatible with Arduino. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst index 9577c62..cd18567 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst @@ -147,3 +147,6 @@ See also should first read ST's application notes on `ADC modes `_ and `ADC oversampling `_. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst index d04f485..a1057ab 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst @@ -159,3 +159,6 @@ See also .. [#fuint16max] This is because the value for the duty cycle on the Maple uses 2 bytes of memory, and an unsigned (i.e., nonnegative) integer with size 2 bytes can hold the values between 0 and 65,535. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst b/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst index 8fb9771..412a0be 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst @@ -124,3 +124,6 @@ See Also . - :ref:`sizeof `\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst b/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst index a2c5b89..734ef9d 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst @@ -41,3 +41,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`Arithmetic operators ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/array.rst b/docs/source/arduino/array.rst index 92f3091..e49cc18 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/array.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/array.rst @@ -118,3 +118,6 @@ See also - :ref:`Storing arrays in FLASH memory ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst b/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst index 21e90e9..4907473 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst @@ -65,3 +65,6 @@ See Also `The Anatomy of the Assignment Operator `_ for more information. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst index cb11327..3714709 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst @@ -97,3 +97,6 @@ See also - :ref:`detachInterrupt ` - :ref:`external-interrupts` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst index b74ad3d..f25236c 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst @@ -43,3 +43,6 @@ See also - :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` - :ref:`arduino-bitset` - :ref:`arduino-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst index 8a46877..14261a6 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst @@ -42,3 +42,6 @@ See also - :ref:`bitRead `\ () - :ref:`bitWrite `\ () - :ref:`bitSet `\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst index c3a79c4..f2cb037 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst @@ -44,3 +44,6 @@ See also - :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` - :ref:`arduino-bitset` - :ref:`arduino-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst index adf637a..b6964a0 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst @@ -44,3 +44,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` - :ref:`arduino-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst index d849f2a..00c466f 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst @@ -143,3 +143,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`arduino-bitread` - :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` - :ref:`arduino-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst index d460dc8..92f3fdd 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst @@ -226,3 +226,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`Boolean operations ` (``&&``, ``||``) - :ref:`Bitwise operators ` (``&``, ``|``, ``^``, ``~``) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst index 3f102eb..196cc2c 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst @@ -181,3 +181,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`Boolean operations ` (``&&``, ``||``) - :ref:`Compound bitwise operations ` (``&=``, ``|=``, ``^=``). + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst index b35a54f..0e57cc4 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst @@ -35,3 +35,6 @@ See also - :ref:`bitRead() ` - :ref:`bitSet() ` - :ref:`bitClear() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst b/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst index a724c20..8106520 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst @@ -84,3 +84,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`Compound bitwise operators ` (``&=``, ``|=``, ``^=``). - :ref:`if statement ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst b/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst index 772db0f..a5f2c51 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst @@ -50,3 +50,6 @@ See also - :ref:`Boolean constants ` - :ref:`Boolean operators ` - :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst b/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst index 1ae34e8..38018fe 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst @@ -92,3 +92,6 @@ reference page for more information):: .. [#fbug] At present this feature is slightly buggy as the IDE will often find (incorrectly) a brace in text that has been commented out. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst b/docs/source/arduino/break.rst index 57009c1..8c0478a 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/break.rst @@ -30,3 +30,6 @@ Example } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst index 0b21b31..8478d0b 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst @@ -29,3 +29,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`byte() ` (casting a value to a byte) - :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst index bf85a35..38aec36 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst @@ -48,3 +48,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`arduino-byte` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt b/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt index e662eeb..e100140 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt +++ b/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ .. Included in all this directory's files in order to satisfy the .. Arduino CC Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License -.. admonition:: License +.. admonition:: License and Attribution This documentation page was adapted from the `Arduino Reference Documentation `_\ , which diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/char.rst b/docs/source/arduino/char.rst index 53dd060..72d5ef2 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/char.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/char.rst @@ -47,3 +47,6 @@ See also - :ref:`arduino-array` (a string is just an array of ``char``\ s) - :ref:`Serial.println() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst index d8184c1..91a0f8f 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst @@ -34,3 +34,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`char ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst index 3aeb37f..e46fc48 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst @@ -58,3 +58,6 @@ a problem, or when a program refuses to compile and the compiler error is cryptic or unhelpful. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst index 85c2118..e5e92d7 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst @@ -82,3 +82,6 @@ Comparison operators, along with :ref:`boolean operators (This sometimes has uses, though, so just because an assignment appears within a conditional doesn't mean it's automatically wrong. Be careful to know what you mean.) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst b/docs/source/arduino/const.rst index 4a45387..eb2b07b 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/const.rst @@ -47,3 +47,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`#define ` - :ref:`volatile ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst index b082774..3a819b3 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst @@ -299,3 +299,6 @@ See also - `unsigned int `_ - `long `_ - `unsigned long `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst index eb06122..a43b8f8 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst @@ -60,3 +60,6 @@ See also - :ref:`min() ` - :ref:`max() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst b/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst index 42d7825..31af3a5 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst @@ -29,3 +29,6 @@ Example delay(50); } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst b/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst index 6b1406a..e1188d0 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst @@ -28,3 +28,6 @@ See also - :ref:`tan() ` - :ref:`float ` - :ref:`double ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/define.rst b/docs/source/arduino/define.rst index e718775..6a403d4 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/define.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/define.rst @@ -51,3 +51,6 @@ Example See Also -------- - :ref:`const ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst index 644e8c4..64d78aa 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst @@ -65,3 +65,6 @@ See also - :ref:`micros() ` - :ref:`delayMicroseconds() ` - (Arduino) `Blink Without Delay `_ example (works unmodified on Maple) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst index 2c7cde6..10f3a1b 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst @@ -60,3 +60,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`delay ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst index f770de1..6e037e6 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst @@ -32,3 +32,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`attachInterrupt() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst index 86e52d8..daf04f8 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst @@ -56,3 +56,6 @@ See Also + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst index 82e1813..b80d5c6 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst @@ -111,3 +111,6 @@ See also - `Tutorial: Digital Pins `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/double.rst b/docs/source/arduino/double.rst index 658af12..d1c1076 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/double.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/double.rst @@ -44,3 +44,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`float ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst index 697e4b7..7dffe50 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst @@ -22,3 +22,6 @@ Example:: delay(50); // wait for sensors to stabilize x = readSensors(); // check the sensors } while (x < 100); + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/else.rst b/docs/source/arduino/else.rst index e94bb25..9345e8a 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/else.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/else.rst @@ -49,3 +49,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`if ` - :ref:`switch/case ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/float.rst b/docs/source/arduino/float.rst index 683f32d..aa3bd99 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/float.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/float.rst @@ -53,3 +53,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`double ` - :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst index 773bfe9..6a2e799 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst @@ -24,3 +24,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`float ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/for.rst b/docs/source/arduino/for.rst index cc18722..43b82fa 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/for.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/for.rst @@ -137,3 +137,6 @@ See also 2. After the seventh iteration, the post-loop causes ``x`` to equal 128. This is larger than 100, so the loop condition is false, and the loop stops. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst b/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst index b19d424..e683c98 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst @@ -125,3 +125,6 @@ See Also - Dijkstra, Edsger W. `Go To Statement Considered Harmful `_ (PDF) - Knuth, Donald. `Structured Programming with go to Statements `_ (PDF) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst index 0682391..74717c1 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst @@ -48,3 +48,6 @@ See Also + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/if.rst b/docs/source/arduino/if.rst index 00f1a4d..89af166 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/if.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/if.rst @@ -76,3 +76,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`boolean operators ` - :ref:`comparison operators ` - :ref:`else ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/include.rst b/docs/source/arduino/include.rst index da124e5..37553f4 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/include.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/include.rst @@ -66,3 +66,6 @@ root `_ of a number:: SerialUSB.println(cubeRootOf3); } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst b/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst index ea9cb88..38dee6c 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst @@ -39,3 +39,6 @@ See also -------- - :ref:`Compound arithmetic operators ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/int.rst b/docs/source/arduino/int.rst index 4bb876c..690deb8 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/int.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/int.rst @@ -65,3 +65,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`unsigned long ` - :ref:`Integer Constants ` - :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst index 4db65d2..0b34a39 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst @@ -27,3 +27,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`int ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst b/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst index 282362b..b9c95b1 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst @@ -57,3 +57,6 @@ See Also - `detachInterrupt `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/long.rst b/docs/source/arduino/long.rst index 6d20111..cae659a 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/long.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/long.rst @@ -50,3 +50,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`Integer Constants ` - :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst index ed23821..f247dae 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst @@ -25,3 +25,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`long ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst b/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst index b558edf..4383ab6 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst @@ -40,3 +40,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`setup() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst index d69f66a..9331181 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst @@ -40,3 +40,6 @@ See also - `word `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/map.rst b/docs/source/arduino/map.rst index 65647fa..61aa626 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/map.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/map.rst @@ -117,3 +117,6 @@ See Also - `constrain `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/max.rst b/docs/source/arduino/max.rst index 1e2c619..a80c421 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/max.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/max.rst @@ -58,3 +58,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`min() ` - :ref:`constrain() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst b/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst index cdee497..bd8b926 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst @@ -64,3 +64,6 @@ See also - `delay `_\ () - `delayMicroseconds `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst b/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst index 009517d..12f5d8d 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst @@ -65,3 +65,6 @@ See also - `delayMicroseconds `_\ () - `Tutorial: Blink Without Delay `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/min.rst b/docs/source/arduino/min.rst index 0ac018c..efe78ca 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/min.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/min.rst @@ -61,3 +61,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`max() ` - :ref:`constrain() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst b/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst index 64a546d..bb65600 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst @@ -72,3 +72,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`Arithmetic ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst b/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst index 10d504d..8711ebb 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst @@ -54,3 +54,6 @@ See Also - `interrupts `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst b/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst index 4390b52..9e59065 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst @@ -45,3 +45,6 @@ See also - `tone `_ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst index b34bb31..e84e1e6 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst @@ -71,3 +71,6 @@ See also - :ref:`arduino-digitalread` - Maple :ref:`GPIO ` reference page + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst index b9bbc48..efc81ca 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst @@ -23,3 +23,6 @@ See Also ======== - http://xkcd.com/138/ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst index 66e67d7..0a7355c 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst @@ -24,3 +24,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`sqrt() ` - :ref:`float ` - :ref:`double ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst index 568d992..f26f754 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst @@ -77,3 +77,6 @@ Example } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/random.rst b/docs/source/arduino/random.rst index 44f122a..8da92b0 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/random.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/random.rst @@ -90,3 +90,6 @@ See also - `randomSeed `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst b/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst index b0b5d71..983c66d 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst @@ -68,3 +68,6 @@ See also - `random `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/return.rst b/docs/source/arduino/return.rst index 9774320..fd1493d 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/return.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/return.rst @@ -56,3 +56,6 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`comments ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst b/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst index 0e793ec..5974825 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst @@ -57,3 +57,6 @@ See Also - `C++ programming Wikibook `_. - Wikipedia article on `scope `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst b/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst index 3230819..b90d925 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst @@ -20,3 +20,6 @@ missing semicolon, in the immediate vicinity, preceding the line at which the compiler complained. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst b/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst index abba049..1bcd28d 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst @@ -63,3 +63,6 @@ Examples - `Serial Call Response `_ - `Serial Call Response ASCII `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst b/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst index 05911ed..79c9527 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst @@ -29,3 +29,6 @@ Example // ... } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst b/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst index 2277cf1..3815dc5 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst @@ -131,3 +131,6 @@ Example } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst index 4eb2e1f..b117f5f 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst @@ -23,3 +23,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`tan ` - :ref:`float ` - :ref:`double ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst index 104c183..8513e9d 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst @@ -60,3 +60,6 @@ this:: for (i = 0; i < (sizeof(myInts)/sizeof(int)) - 1; i++) { // do something with myInts[i] } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst index 2b6b1fe..c918d50 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst @@ -37,3 +37,6 @@ Arduino Compatibility --------------------- Maple's implementation of ``sq()`` is compatible with Arduino. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst index 4263345..f93908e 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst @@ -20,3 +20,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`pow ` - :ref:`sq ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst b/docs/source/arduino/static.rst index b292891..76bf949 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/static.rst @@ -52,3 +52,6 @@ then incremented, so it starts out at one. Subsequent calls to ``readSensors()`` won't reset ``numSensorReadings`` to zero, because it was declared ``static``. Thus, ``numSensorReadings`` is a count of the number of times that ``readSensors()`` has been called. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/string.rst b/docs/source/arduino/string.rst index 8db400a..528e7de 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/string.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/string.rst @@ -126,3 +126,6 @@ See Also - :ref:`array ` - :ref:`__attribute__ ` - :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst b/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst index 0c9c61d..ce508e7 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst @@ -4,3 +4,6 @@ String Class ============ Stub. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst b/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst index ffee295..1844266 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst @@ -86,3 +86,6 @@ See Also - `Variable Declaration `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst b/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst index 1634de1..2ca2793 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst @@ -76,3 +76,6 @@ See also: `if...else `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst b/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst index f31b357..f17ffcc 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst @@ -33,3 +33,6 @@ See also - `cos `_\ () - `float `_ - `double `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst b/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst index c7b1e44..8252804 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst @@ -76,3 +76,6 @@ See also - `Tutorial: PWM `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst index f846105..1fd7a1c 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst @@ -39,3 +39,6 @@ See also - `Serial.println `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst index 10835fe..11412b1 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst @@ -75,3 +75,6 @@ See Also - `Variable Declaration `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst index 1bdb434..c493c40 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst @@ -61,3 +61,6 @@ See Also - `Variable Declaration `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst b/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst index d79f28b..bedb86b 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst @@ -186,3 +186,6 @@ Variable Scope - `Variable Scope `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst b/docs/source/arduino/void.rst index 00166b6..1d3bf8e 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/void.rst @@ -35,3 +35,6 @@ See also `function declaration `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst index 4212ac5..9516db0 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst @@ -68,3 +68,6 @@ See also - `AttachInterrupt `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/while.rst b/docs/source/arduino/while.rst index 9ec9f78..e8167bd 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/while.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/while.rst @@ -44,3 +44,6 @@ Example var++; } + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/word.rst b/docs/source/arduino/word.rst index 39b3a0d..32506b8 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/word.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/word.rst @@ -27,3 +27,6 @@ See also - `byte `_ - `word `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst index 5ef821c..1e854ba 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst @@ -49,3 +49,6 @@ See also - `word `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file -- cgit v1.2.3 From 19e8336afbc827378216aca2b1af45ef89a108ab Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Marti Bolivar Date: Sun, 21 Nov 2010 01:40:37 -0500 Subject: updated serial bootloader spec; other improvements --- docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst | 4 +- docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst | 4 +- docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst | 8 +- docs/source/arduino/braces.rst | 8 +- docs/source/arduino/break.rst | 8 +- docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst | 14 +- docs/source/arduino/comments.rst | 10 +- docs/source/arduino/const.rst | 10 +- docs/source/arduino/constants.rst | 24 +- docs/source/arduino/continue.rst | 18 +- docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst | 12 +- docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst | 12 +- docs/source/arduino/goto.rst | 4 +- docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst | 8 +- docs/source/arduino/millis.rst | 4 +- docs/source/arduino/setup.rst | 8 +- docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst | 45 ++- docs/source/arduino/static.rst | 6 +- docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst | 96 ++++-- docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst | 2 +- docs/source/arduino/variables.rst | 16 +- docs/source/arduino/void.rst | 8 +- docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst | 10 +- docs/source/bootloader.rst | 400 +++++++++++++++---------- docs/source/external-interrupts.rst | 2 +- docs/source/foo.rst | 3 +- docs/source/index.rst | 20 +- docs/source/language.rst | 469 +++++++++++++----------------- docs/source/unix-toolchain.rst | 42 ++- docs/source/wirish.rst | 1 + docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst | 13 +- 31 files changed, 675 insertions(+), 614 deletions(-) (limited to 'docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst') diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst b/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst index 412a0be..69cf166 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ Description These operators return the sum, difference, product, or quotient (respectively) of the two operands. The operation is conducted using the data type of the operands, so, for example, ``9 / 4`` gives ``2`` -since 9 and 4 are ints. +since 9 and 4 are :ref:`int variables `. This also means that the operation can overflow if the result is larger than that which can be stored in the data type (e.g. adding 1 @@ -126,4 +126,4 @@ See Also - :ref:`sizeof `\ () -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst index 196cc2c..40c3d7a 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst @@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ program to blink digital pin 13 (the LED pin on Maple):: void setup(){ pinMode(led_pin, OUTPUT); } - + void loop(){ toggle = toggle ^ 1; digitalWrite(led_pin, toggle); @@ -183,4 +183,4 @@ See Also ``|=``, ``^=``). -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst b/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst index 8106520..1d834d3 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst @@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ Boolean Operators ================= These can be used inside the condition of an :ref:`if ` -statement. +statement. Evaluate to :ref:`true ` or +:ref:`false `. .. contents:: Contents :local: @@ -45,6 +46,7 @@ True if either operand is true. For example:: is true if either ``x`` or ``y`` is greater than 0. +.. _arduino-boolean-not: ! (logical not) --------------- @@ -55,7 +57,7 @@ True if the operand is false. For example:: // ... } -is true if ``x`` is false (i.e. if ``x`` equals zero). +is true if ``x`` is false (i.e. if ``x`` is zero). Some Advice ----------- @@ -86,4 +88,4 @@ See Also - :ref:`if statement ` -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst b/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst index 38018fe..04518b3 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst @@ -59,10 +59,10 @@ pages for more information):: while (boolean expression) { // code inside the loop goes here } - + for (initialisation; termination condition; incrementing expr) { // code inside the loop goes here - } + } do { // code inside the loop goes here @@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ reference page for more information):: } else if (boolean expression) { // code inside the "else if" - } + } else { // code inside the "else" } @@ -94,4 +94,4 @@ reference page for more information):: out. -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst b/docs/source/arduino/break.rst index 8c0478a..3e1e9ee 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/break.rst @@ -19,17 +19,17 @@ Example for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) { digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); - sens = analogRead(sensorPin); + sens = analogRead(sensorPin); if (sens > threshold){ // bail out on sensor detect x = 0; // this line of code means that we'll immediately exit // from the "for" loop: break; - } + } delay(50); } - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst index 38aec36..348c9fb 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst @@ -10,17 +10,17 @@ Description Converts a value to the :ref:`byte ` data type. -.. warning:: +.. note:: Casting to the byte type is provided for compatibility with - Arduino. However, ``byte`` is a non-standard type. The standard - C++ type for storing an 8-bit unsigned integer is ``unsigned - char``, and we recommend using that instead. + Arduino. However, the recommended Maple type for storing an 8-bit + unsigned integer is ``uint8``. (C and C++ programmers: ``stdint.h`` + is also available). - In order to cast a variable ``x`` to an ``unsigned char``, the + In order to cast a variable ``x`` to a ``uint8``, the following syntax can be used:: - (unsigned char)(x); + uint8(x); Syntax ------ @@ -50,4 +50,4 @@ See Also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst index e46fc48..b50aa0f 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst @@ -14,19 +14,23 @@ One use for comments is to help you understand (or remember) how your program works, or to inform others how your program works. There are two different ways of making comments. +.. _arduino-comments-singleline: + **Single line comment**: Anything following two slashes, ``//``, until the end of the line, is a comment:: x = 5; // the rest of this line is a comment +.. _arduino-comments-multiline: + **Multi-line comment**: Anything in between a pair of ``/*`` and ``*/`` is a comment:: - + /* <-- a slash-star begins a multi-line comment all of this in the multi-line comment - you can use it to comment out whole blocks of code - + if (gwb == 0){ // single line comment is OK inside a multi-line comment x = 3; } @@ -60,4 +64,4 @@ is cryptic or unhelpful. -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst b/docs/source/arduino/const.rst index eb2b07b..b008144 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/const.rst @@ -26,13 +26,13 @@ Example // this defines a variable called "pi", which cannot be changed: const float pi = 3.14; float x; - + // .... - + x = pi * 2; // it's fine to find the value of a const variable - + pi = 7; // illegal - you can't write to (modify) a constant - + **#define** or **const** ------------------------ @@ -49,4 +49,4 @@ See Also - :ref:`volatile ` -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst index 3a819b3..e841c9b 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst @@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ Digital pins can be used either as **INPUT** or **OUTPUT**. Changing a pin from INPUT TO OUTPUT with pinMode() drastically changes the electrical behavior of the pin. - +.. _arduino-constants-input: Pins Configured as Inputs ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ circuit that they are sampling, say equivalent to a series resistor of 100 Megohms in front of the pin. This makes them useful for reading a sensor, but not powering an LED. - +.. _arduino-constants-output: Pins Configured as Outputs ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ of current provided by an Atmega pin is also not enough to power most relays or motors, and some interface circuitry will be required. -.. _arduino-fpconstants: +.. _arduino-constants-fp: Floating-Point Constants ------------------------ @@ -141,28 +141,26 @@ Similar to integer constants, floating point constants are used to make code more readable. Floating point constants are swapped at compile time for the value to which the expression evaluates. +.. TODO explain that floating point literals are doubles +.. _arduino-constants-fp-f: -Examples: - +.. TODO f modifiers +Examples: ``n = .005;`` - - Floating point constants can also be expressed in a variety of scientific notation. 'E' and 'e' are both accepted as valid exponent indicators. - - :: - + floating-point evaluates to: also evaluates to: - constant - + constant + 10.0 10 2.34E5 2.34 * 10^5 234000 67e-12 67.0 * 10^-12 .000000000067 @@ -301,4 +299,4 @@ See also - `unsigned long `_ -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst b/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst index 31af3a5..bda1c95 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst @@ -2,8 +2,9 @@ .. _arduino-continue: -continue -======== +========== + continue +========== The ``continue`` keyword skips the rest of the current iteration of a :ref:`while `\ , :ref:`for `\ , or @@ -13,22 +14,21 @@ iterations. Example -------- +======= :: - - for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) - { - if (x > 40 && x < 120){ // create jump in values + + for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) { + if (x > 40 && x < 120) { // create jump in values continue; // skips the next two lines and goes to the // beginning of the loop, with the next value of x } - + digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); delay(50); } -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst index 10f3a1b..d1016f1 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst @@ -21,18 +21,18 @@ Example The following example configures pin number 8 to work as an output pin, and sends a train of pulses with a period of roughly 100 microseconds:: - + int outPin = 8; - + void setup() { pinMode(outPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output } - + void loop() { digitalWrite(outPin, HIGH); // sets the pin on - delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds + delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds digitalWrite(outPin, LOW); // sets the pin off - delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds + delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds } @@ -62,4 +62,4 @@ See Also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst index 6a2e799..a8d1113 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst @@ -9,13 +9,14 @@ Description ----------- Converts a value to the :ref:`float ` data type. Here -is an example:: +is an example (see the :ref:`constants reference +` for an explanation of the "2.0f"):: int x = 2; - float f = float(x); // f now holds "2.0", a floating point value + float f = float(x); // f now holds 2.0f, a float value The value ``x`` can be of any type. However, if ``x`` is not a number -(like an ``int`` or ``long``), you will get strange results. +(like an ``int``), you will get strange results. See the :ref:`float ` reference for details about the precision and limitations of ``float`` values on the Maple. @@ -24,6 +25,7 @@ See Also -------- - :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`double ` +- :ref:`double() ` - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst b/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst index e683c98..2901913 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst @@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ Here's an example:: if (analogRead(0) > 250) { goto bailout; } - // more statements ... + // more statements ... } // innermost loop ends here } @@ -127,4 +127,4 @@ See Also - Knuth, Donald. `Structured Programming with go to Statements `_ (PDF) -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst index 74717c1..5b1c24e 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst @@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ highByte(x) .. warning:: This macro is provided for compatibility with Arduino only. It returns the second-least significant byte in an integral value. It makes sense to call this the "high" byte on a 16-bit - microcontroller like the Atmel chips on Arduinos, but it makes no - sense at all on a 32-bit microcontroller like the STM32s in the - Maple line. + ``int`` microcontroller like the Atmel chips on Arduinos, but it + makes no sense at all on a 32-bit microcontroller like the STM32s + in the Maple line. In short: we provide this so that existing Arduino code works as expected, but **strongly discourage its use** in new programs. @@ -50,4 +50,4 @@ See Also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst b/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst index 12f5d8d..f52d396 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ Example :: unsigned long time; - + void setup(){ Serial.begin(9600); } @@ -67,4 +67,4 @@ See also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst b/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst index 79c9527..9cc96d4 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst @@ -15,15 +15,15 @@ Example :: - + int buttonPin = 3; - + void setup() { Serial.begin(9600); pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); } - + void loop() { // ... @@ -31,4 +31,4 @@ Example -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst index 8513e9d..7c31809 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst @@ -5,28 +5,20 @@ sizeof() ======== -Syntax ------- +The ``sizeof`` operator on the Maple returns the number of bytes +needed to store a value of a given type\ [#fcharsize]_. This can be +an ordinary numeric type, like ``int``. It can be something more +complicated, like a ``struct`` or ``union``. If the argument to +``sizeof`` is an array, it returns the total number of bytes occupied +by the array. -:: +The general syntax looks like this:: sizeof(type) sizeof(var) - - -Description ------------ - -The ``sizeof`` operator returns the number of bytes needed to store a -value of a given type. This can be an ordinary numeric type, like -``int``. It can be something more complicated, like a ``struct`` or -``union``. If the argument to ``sizeof`` is an array, it returns the -total number of bytes occupied by the array. - - -Examplec --------- +Example +------- The ``sizeof`` operator is useful for dealing with arrays (such as strings) where it is convenient to be able to change the size of the @@ -51,15 +43,22 @@ changing the text phrase:: } -Note that ``sizeof`` returns the total number of bytes; this is equal -to the number of ``char``\ s only because the C++ standard guarantees -that ``sizeof(char) == 1``. So for larger variable types such as -``int``, the :ref:`for loop ` would look something like -this:: +Note that ``sizeof`` returns the total number of bytes. So for larger +variable types such as ``int``, the :ref:`for loop ` +would look something like this:: for (i = 0; i < (sizeof(myInts)/sizeof(int)) - 1; i++) { // do something with myInts[i] } +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#fcharsize] Technically (and pedantically) speaking, ``sizeof`` + returns a multiple of the number of bits a ``char`` occupies in + memory. However, on the Maple (this goes for most C++ + implementations), a ``char`` occupies 8 bits = 1 byte. All the C++ + standard guarantees, however, is that a ``char`` occupies at + *least* 8 bits. + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst b/docs/source/arduino/static.rst index 76bf949..01f3dbf 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/static.rst @@ -15,8 +15,8 @@ Variables declared as ``static`` will only be created and initialized the first time a function is called. .. note:: This is only one use of the ``static`` keyword in C++. It - has some other important uses that are outside the scope of this - documentation; consult a reliable C++ reference for details. + has some other important uses that are not documented here; consult + a reliable C++ reference for details. Example ------- @@ -54,4 +54,4 @@ it was declared ``static``. Thus, ``numSensorReadings`` is a count of the number of times that ``readSensors()`` has been called. -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst b/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst index 2ca2793..9f66d0a 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + .. _arduino-switchcase: switch / case statements @@ -7,10 +9,7 @@ Like :ref:`if/else ` blocks, A ``switch`` statement controls program flow by allowing you to specify different code that should be executed under various cases. -Syntax ------- - -:: +The general syntax looks like this:: switch (var) { case val1: @@ -28,6 +27,7 @@ Where ``var`` is a variable whose value to investigate, and the ``val1``, ``val2`` after each ``case`` are constant values that ``var`` might be. + Description ----------- @@ -36,46 +36,82 @@ specified in ``case`` statements. When a ``case`` statement is found whose value matches that of the variable, the code in that case statement is run. -The ``break`` keyword exits the switch statement, and is typically -used at the end of each ``case``. Without a ``break``, the ``switch`` -statement will continue executing the following ``case`` expressions -("falling-through") until a ``break`` (or the end of the switch -statement) is reached. +Here's a more concrete example:: -Writing ``default:`` instead of a ``case`` statement allows you to -specify what to do if none of the ``case`` statements matches. Having -a ``default:`` is optional (you can leave it out), but if you have -one, it must appear after all of the ``case`` statements, as shown -above. + switch (var) { + case 1: + doThing1(); + break; + case 2: + doThing2(); + break; + } + afterTheSwitch(); -``switch`` statements are often used with an ``enum`` value as the -variable to compare. In this case, you can write down all of the -values the ``enum`` takes as ``case`` statements, and be sure you've -covered all the possibilities. +In the above example, if ``var == 1``, then the code beginning on the +line after ``case 1:`` gets executed. That is, if ``var`` is one, +``doThing1()`` gets called first, and then the ``break`` statement +gets executed. + +The ``break`` keyword exits the ``switch`` statement, and is typically +used at the end of each ``case``. Since there is a ``break`` at the +end of ``case 1:``, the ``switch`` statement gets exited, and the next +line to be run is the one which calls ``afterTheSwitch()``. + +Without a ``break``, the ``switch`` statement will continue executing +the following ``case`` expressions ("falling-through") until a +``break`` (or the end of the switch statement) is reached. Let's +pretend the ``switch`` looked like this instead:: -Example -------- + switch (var) { + case 1: + doThing1(); + // no break statement anymore + case 2: + doThing2(); + break; + } + afterTheSwitch(); + +Now, if ``var`` is one, ``doThing1()`` gets executed like before. +However, without a ``break``, the code would continue to be executed +line-by-line, so ``doThing2()`` would be called next. At this point, +a ``break`` has been reached, so the program continues by calling +``afterTheSwitch()``. This is usually not what you want, which is why +each ``case`` usually has a ``break`` at the end. -:: +Writing "``default:``" instead of a ``case`` statement allows you to +specify what to do if none of the ``case`` statements matches. Having +a ``default`` is optional (you can leave it out), but if you have one, +it must appear after all of the ``case`` statements. Let's add a +``default`` to the ``switch`` we've been discussing:: switch (var) { case 1: - //do something when var equals 1 + doThing1(); break; case 2: - //do something when var equals 2 + doThing2(); break; default: - // if nothing else matches, do the default - // default is optional + doSomethingElse(); } + afterTheSwitch(); -See also: ---------- - -`if...else `_ +If ``var`` is one, then ``doThing1()`` gets called. If ``var`` is +two, ``doThing2()`` gets called. If ``var`` is anything else, +``doSomethingElse()`` gets called. As stated above, a ``default`` is +optional. If you're missing one and none of the ``case`` statements +match, the ``switch`` does nothing at all, as if it wasn't there. +``switch`` statements are often used with an ``enum`` value as the +variable to compare. In this case, you can write down all of the +values the ``enum`` takes as ``case`` statements, and be sure you've +covered all the possibilities. +See also: +--------- +- :ref:`if...else ` -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst index 1fd7a1c..5c26d17 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst @@ -41,4 +41,4 @@ See also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst b/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst index bedb86b..0720041 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ A variable is a way of naming and storing a value for later use by the program, such as data from a sensor or an intermediate value used in a calculation. - +.. _arduino-variables-declaring: Declaring Variables ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ store in choosing variable types. Variables will `roll over <#VariableRollover>`_ when the value stored exceeds the space assigned to store it. See below for an example. - +.. _arduino-variables-scope: Variable Scope ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ influences how various functions in a program will *see* the variable. This is called variable `scope `_. - +.. _arduino-variables-initializing: Initializing Variables ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ Example: int calibrationVal = 17; // declare calibrationVal and set initial value - +.. _arduino-variables-rollover: Variable Rollover ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ variable on the left side. :: inputVariable1 = 7; // sets the variable named inputVariable1 to 7 - inputVariable2 = analogRead(2); // sets the variable named inputVariable2 to the + inputVariable2 = analogRead(2); // sets the variable named inputVariable2 to the // (digitized) input voltage read from analog pin #2 @@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ Examples int lightSensVal; char currentLetter; unsigned long speedOfLight = 186000UL; - char errorMessage = {"choose another option"}; // see string + char errorMessage = {"choose another option"}; // see string @@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ inputVariable2 which is a minimum of 100: { inputVariable2 = 100; } - + delay(inputVariable2); @@ -188,4 +188,4 @@ Variable Scope -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst b/docs/source/arduino/void.rst index 1d3bf8e..82f9606 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/void.rst @@ -16,17 +16,17 @@ Example: // actions are performed in the functions "setup" and "loop" // but no information is reported to the larger program - + void setup() { // ... } - + void loop() { // ... } - + @@ -37,4 +37,4 @@ See also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst index 9516db0..fc02081 100644 --- a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst +++ b/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst @@ -39,21 +39,21 @@ Example :: // toggles LED when interrupt pin changes state - + int pin = 13; volatile int state = LOW; - + void setup() { pinMode(pin, OUTPUT); attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); } - + void loop() { digitalWrite(pin, state); } - + void blink() { state = !state; @@ -70,4 +70,4 @@ See also -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/bootloader.rst b/docs/source/bootloader.rst index 2cacb5a..4be8e93 100644 --- a/docs/source/bootloader.rst +++ b/docs/source/bootloader.rst @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Maple Bootloader(s) ===================== -.. TODO: [Stub] add a section on flashing your own bootloader +.. TODO: add a section on flashing your own bootloader The firmware which allows the Maple to be reprogrammed via a USB connection. Every Maple board comes programmed with this by default, @@ -20,43 +20,46 @@ Flash memory and only runs when the chip is reset). .. contents:: Contents :local: -Bootloader Schemes Explained! ------------------------------ - -Maple Rev 3 and Rev 5 (the version currently shipping) represents a -drastic remake of the core library as well as the upload process. Some -of these changes are aesthetic, refactoring and reorganization. Some -are performance minded. The changes to the bootloader, however, were -implemented to solve some really gritty cross platform issues. Before -delving in to how the Rev 1 bootloader worked and how the Rev 3 -bootloader works now, lets look at the features common to both of them -and touch a bit on the Arduino setup. This is a fairly involved -explanation, with a lot of details that are likely only interesting to -a few. If you just want to get the rough idea, skim this article. If -you want to start hacking on the bootloader, get in touch with us to -get even more info on how this all works. Of course, you can always -`check out the code at github `_! +Bootloader Schemes Explained +---------------------------- + +Maple Rev 3 and Rev 5 (Rev 5 is the version currently shipping) +represents a drastic remake of the core library as well as the upload +process. Thes changes to the bootloader, were implemented to resolve +platform-specific issues on Windows. Before delving into how the Rev +1 bootloader worked and how the Rev 5 bootloader works now, we'll +discuss the features common to each and touch a bit on the Arduino +setup. + +This is a fairly involved explanation, with a lot of details that are +likely only interesting to a few. If you just want to get the rough +idea, skim this article. If you want to start hacking on the +bootloader, get in touch with us to get even more info on how this all +works. And finally, you can always `check out the code at github +`_! Arduino ------- -Arduino is based off of AVR series micro controllers, most of which +Arduino is based off of AVR series microcontrollers, most of which lack USB support. Thus, boards like the Duemilanove add USB capability -via an FTDI USB to Serial converter chip. This chip interfaces with -the AVR over…serial. When you plug an Arduino into a computer, only an -FTDI driver is needed. Since the FTDI chip is separate from the AVR, -you can reset the Arduino without closing this USB connection with the -FTDI chip. To program an Arduino, the host machine sends a command -over the USB pipe (reset DTR) which in turn resets the AVR. The AVR -will boot into a bootloader, which waits for a second for any upload -commands over serial. The host machine can either send those commands, -or do nothing. In which case the AVR will quickly jump to user code +via an FTDI USB-to-Serial converter chip. This chip interfaces with +the AVR over an RS-232 serial interface. When you plug an Arduino into +a computer, only an FTDI driver is needed. Since the FTDI chip is +separate from the AVR, you can reset the Arduino without closing this +USB connection with the FTDI chip. + +To program an Arduino, the host machine sends a command over the USB +pipe (reset DTR) which in turn resets the AVR. The AVR will boot into +a bootloader, which waits for a second for any upload commands over +serial. The host machine can either send those commands, or do +nothing. If it does nothing, the AVR will quickly jump to user code and off you go. The whole process is quick, the bootloader doesn’t live for very long, and will exit almost immediately if no upload commands are received. -Maple Rev 1: The Horror... ---------------------------- +Maple Rev 1 +----------- Maple is based off the STM32 (ARM cortex M3) series chips, which do have embedded USB support. Thus, Maple doesn’t need the extra FTDI @@ -140,101 +143,132 @@ bringing up the USB serial. Maple Rev6 - The Serial Bootloader (Tentative) ---------------------------------------------- -The bootloader in Rev3/Rev5 works quite well in linux, it works OK in -Mac, but in windows we had a few major issues. First off, unlike the -other operating systems, Windows needed to be manually pointed to both -the driver to use for programming (DFU, via libusb) and the driver to -use for serial communication (usbser.sys, built in to windows). Maple -operates in only one of these modes at a time, installation has been -quite tricky, involving getting Maple into the right mode and then -installing the driver/inf file during the windows prompt. Furthermore, -because libusb is not bundled with Windows, and its driver is not -signed, users of Windows 7 have been forced to laboriously disable -driver signing checks. Finally, the constant switching of the device -between Serial and DFU modes (during programming) really confuses -windows, often reprompting users to install drivers that are alrady -installed or generally not working well. We have therefore decided to -simplify things greatly, by simply abandoning DFU. In this new -bootloader scheme, Maple is, simply, a serial device. Windows comes -bundled with usbser.sys, so no driver signing is required. The -installation process will be greatly simplified, there will be no more -siwtching back and forth between "modes" and we get the chance to -build in a lot of new functionality that were outside the DFU spec. +The bootloader in Rev3/Rev5 works well on Linux, acceptably on Mac, +but was unsatisfactory on Windows. Unlike the other operating systems, +Windows needed to be manually pointed to both the driver to use for +programming (DFU, via `libusb `_) and the +driver to use for serial communication (usbser.sys, built in to +Windows). Since Maple operates in only one of these modes at a time, +driver installation was unnecessarily complicated. It was necessary to +bring Maple into the correct mode before installing each of the +drivers. Furthermore, because libusb is not bundled with Windows, and +its driver is not signed, Windows 7 users have been forced to +laboriously disable driver signing checks. Finally, Windows hates the +constant switching of the device between Serial and DFU modes (during +programming), and often prompts users to install drivers that are +already installed. We have therefore decided to abandon DFU. + +In our new bootloader scheme, Maple is simply a serial device. +Windows comes bundled with usbser.sys, so no driver signing is +required. The IDE installation process is greatly simplified, there +is no more switching back and forth between "modes", and we can build +in new functionality outside the DFU spec. The first incarnation of this serial-only bootloader leaves libmaple and user code untouched. However, during programming, instead of -calling dfu-util to upload code we will now call a newly written -utility script similar to avr-dude used by arduino. The high level +calling :command:`dfu-util` to upload code we will now call a newly +written utility script similar to `avr-dude +`_. The high level operation of the bootloader will remain the same - come on at startup, -wait for an upload operation or timeout and jump to user code. The -second version of this bootloader will eliminate this dependence on -resetting and timing out by having the bootloader run in the -background all the time, and owning the serial port. In this scheme, +wait for an upload operation or timeout, and jump to user code. + +The second version of this bootloader will eliminate this dependence +on resetting and timing out by having the bootloader run in the +background. It will additionally own the serial port. In this scheme, sending data over the COM port while DTR is pulled low results in that packet being captured by the bootloader and interpreted as a bootloader command. When the user uploads a new program, the bootloader will overwrite the old one, reset the various peripheral -registers, and jump to user code. All of this will occur without every +registers, and jump to user code. All of this will occur without resetting the chip and thus causing Maple to connect and disconnect -from your computer (which seems to cause many problems). The finaly -version of this new bootloader scheme will actually involve a separate +from your computer (which seems to cause many problems). + +The final version of this bootloader scheme will involve a separate microcontroller, whose responsibilities are to drive the USB port, program the main processor, and offer some amount of debugging -capability. This will allow user sketches to run on the "bare metal" -of the main processor, without any bootloader hiding underneath your -programs. This approach is similar to the approaches taken by mBed and -the new Arduino UNO. +capability. This will allow user sketches to run on the bare metal of +the main processor, without any bootloader hiding underneath. This +approach is similar to the approaches taken by mbed and the Arduino +Uno. Regardless of which generation of the new serial bootloader you are working with, the command interface is the same. The low level communication protocol is inspired by STK-500, the protocol used to -program Arduino's and many other AVR based development boards. The -protocol is a packetized query-response scheme. The host PC initiates -every transaction, and for every query sent to the bootloader, a -single response will be returned (or the system times out). Data is +program many AVR-based development boards. The protocol is a +packetized query-response scheme. The host PC initiates every +transaction, and for every query sent to the bootloader, a single +response will be returned (or the system times out). Data is transmitted over 115.2kbps, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit, no parity bit. Every query or response follows the same packet format that looks like this: .. _bootloader-packet-structure: -The Packet -^^^^^^^^^^ -.. csv-table:: - :header: Field, length (Bytes), value, description +Packet Structure +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +A bootloader packet is composed of a sequence of fields, as follows. + +.. list-table:: + :header-rows: 1 + + * - Field + - Length (bytes) + - Value + - Description - START, 2, 0x7EAF, A magic constant that indicates this is a - bootloader packet + * - START + - 2 + - 0x7EAF + - Magic constant, indicates bootloader packet - SEQUENCE_NUM, 1, 0-255, Every response must have the same sequence - number as its query + * - SEQUENCE_NUM + - 1 + - 0--255 + - Queries and responses must have the same sequence number; rolls + over to 0 after 255. - MESSAGE_SIZE, 2, 0-65535, Size of the message body\, currently - messages must be <= 512 Bytes + * - MESSAGE_SIZE + - 2 + - 0--65,535 + - Size of message body, currently limited to a 512B maximum - MESSAGE_BODY, 0-65535, DATA, Self explanatory + * - MESSAGE_BODY + - Variable, determined by MESSAGE_SIZE field + - Command query or response + - See next section - CHECKSUM, 4, VAL, The XOR of all bytes in the packet except the - checksum byte + * - CHECKSUM + - 4 + - XOR of all other bytes in packet + - .. _bootloader-commands: Commands ^^^^^^^^ -The packet structure is really just overhead. The actual queries and -responses are transacted inside of the message body. Again following -in the footsteps of STK-500, each query or response begins with the -single byte CMD field. For each query, the resultant response must -begin with the same CMD byte. For each type of CMD, the structure of -queries and responses are well formed and of fixed size. Like STK-500, -fields longer than 1 byte are transmitted MSB first (big -endian). However, READ and WRITE commands operate bytewise (not word -wise), it is up to the host PC to ensure that alignment and ordering -issues are taken care of when appropriate (Maple uses a little endian -processor, LSB first). - -.. list-table:: GET_INFO Query +The packet structure overhead is for reliability. The actual queries +and responses are transacted inside of the message body. Following in +the footsteps of the STK-500 protocol, each query or response begins +with the single byte CMD field. For each query, the resultant response +must begin with the same CMD byte. For each type of CMD, the structure +of queries and responses are of fixed size. As in STK-500, fields +longer than 1 byte are transmitted MSB first (big endian). However, +READ and WRITE commands operate byte-wise (not word-wise); it is up to +the host PC to ensure that alignment and ordering issues are handled +appropriately. + +.. _bootloader-get-info: + +GET_INFO +"""""""" + +Used to query device characteristics. + +GET_INFO Query: + +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 * - Field @@ -243,11 +277,13 @@ processor, LSB first). * - GET_INFO - 1 - - -\ + - Value 0 + +GET_INFO Response: -.. list-table:: GET_INFO Response +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 4 2 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -255,19 +291,25 @@ processor, LSB first). * - GET_INFO - 1 - - + - Value 0 + + * - Endianness + - 1 + - 0 indicates little-endian, 1 indicates big-endian. + (Currently returns 0; this field allows for future + expansion). * - Available Ram - 4 - - + - In bytes * - Available Flash - 4 - - + - In bytes * - Flash Page Size - 2 - - + - In bytes * - Starting Address (FLASH) - 4 @@ -281,11 +323,18 @@ processor, LSB first). - 4 - Current version 0x00060000 (MAJ,MIN) -\ -\ +.. _bootloader-erase-page: -.. list-table:: ERASE_PAGE Query +ERASE_PAGE +"""""""""" + +Used to erase flash pages. + +ERASE_PAGE query: + +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 4 2 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -293,16 +342,17 @@ processor, LSB first). * - ERASE_PAGE - 1 - - \ + - Value 1 * - ADDRESS - 4 - Will erase whichever page contains ADDRESS -\ +ERASE_PAGE response: -.. list-table:: ERASE_PAGE Response +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 3 2 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -310,17 +360,22 @@ processor, LSB first). * - ERASE_PAGE - 1 - - - - * - SUCCESS? + - Value 1 + + * - SUCCESS - 1 - - Either 0 or 1, (FAILED and OK) + - Either 0 (failure) or 1 (success) + +WRITE_BYTES +""""""""""" -\ -\ +Used to write to RAM or flash. -.. list-table:: ERASE_PAGE Response +WRITE_BYTES query: + +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 4 4 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -328,20 +383,22 @@ processor, LSB first). * - WRITE_BYTES - 1 - - + - Value 2 * - Starting Address - 4 - - Can only write to RAM or addresses on cleared FLASH pages! + - Can address arbitrary RAM, or :ref:`cleared + ` flash pages. * - DATA - - Message Size - 5 - - + - MESSAGE_SIZE - 5 + - See :ref:`Packet Structure ` -\ +WRITE_BYTES response: -.. list-table:: WRITE_BYTES Response +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 2 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -349,38 +406,47 @@ processor, LSB first). * - WRITE_BYTES - 1 - - - - * - SUCCESS? + - Value 2 + + * - SUCCESS - 1 - - Either 0 or 1 (FAILED, OK). Will fail if writes were made to uncleared pages, does not clean up failed writes (memory in unknown state) + - Either 0 (failure) or 1 (success). Will fail if writes were + made to uncleared pages. Does not clean up failed writes + (memory will be left in an undefined state). -\ -\ +READ_BYTES +"""""""""" -.. list-table:: READ_BYTES Query +Used to read from RAM or flash. + +READ_BYTES query: + +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 2 10 * - Field - Bytes - Comments - + * - READ_BYTES - 1 - - - + - Value 3 + * - ADDRESS - 4 - - Start of block to read, must be a multiple of 4 (4 byte alignment) + - Start of block to read. Must be a multiple of 4. * - LENGTH - 2 - - Number of Bytes to Read (currently 512 byte max, must be a multiple of 4) + - Maximum number of bytes to read (currently, this may be at most + 512). Must be a multiple of 4. -\ +READ_BYTES response: -.. list-table:: READ_BYTES Response +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 2 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -388,17 +454,26 @@ processor, LSB first). * - READ_BYTES - 1 - - + - Value 3 * - DATA - - Message Size - 1 - - Returns data, if this section is of length 0, this should be interpreted as a read failure + - MESSAGE_SIZE - 1 + - Contains read bytes. The actual number of bytes read may be + less than the LENGTH field of the corresponding READ_BYTES + query. If this section is of length 0, this should be + interpreted as a read failure. See + :ref:`bootloader-packet-structure`. + +JUMP_TO_USER +"""""""""""" + +Causes the bootloader to jump to user code's starting address. -\ -\ +JUMP_TO_USER query: -.. list-table:: JUMP_TO_USER Query +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 1 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -406,12 +481,19 @@ processor, LSB first). * - JUMP_TO_USER - 1 - - + - Value 4 + + * - Location + - 1 + - 0 means jump to flash starting address, 1 means jump to RAM + starting address. See the :ref:`bootloader-get-info` command + for more information. -\ +JUMP_TO_USER response: -.. list-table:: JUMP_TO_USER Response +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 1 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -419,17 +501,26 @@ processor, LSB first). * - JUMP_TO_USER - 1 - - + - Value 4 * - SUCCESS - 1 - - Either 0 or 1 (FAILED,OK). Will end this bootloader session and jump to user + - Either 0 (failure) or 1 (success). If successful, after the + response is sent, the bootloader ends this session and jumps to + the user code in flash or RAM as specified in the query's + Location field. + + +SOFT_RESET +"""""""""" -\ -\ - -.. list-table:: SOFT_RESET Query +Engages a full software reset. + +SOFT_RESET query: + +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 1 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -437,12 +528,13 @@ processor, LSB first). * - SOFT_RESET - 1 - - Will engage a full software reset + - Value 5 -\ +SOFT_RESET response: -.. list-table:: SOFT_RESET Response +.. list-table:: :header-rows: 1 + :widths: 2 1 10 * - Field - Bytes @@ -450,11 +542,9 @@ processor, LSB first). * - SOFT_RESET - 1 - - Will engage a full software + - Value 5 * - SUCCESS - 1 - - Either 0 or 1 (FAILED,OK). Will end this bootloader session and reset the processor - -\ -\ + - Either 0 or 1 (FAILED and OK, respectively). Will end this + bootloader session and reset the processor. diff --git a/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst b/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst index bc9d6cd..39828e3 100644 --- a/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst +++ b/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst @@ -123,4 +123,4 @@ Recommended Reading * `All `_ * `Datasheet `_ (pdf) - * `Reference Manual `_ (pdf) + * `Reference Manual `_ (pdf) diff --git a/docs/source/foo.rst b/docs/source/foo.rst index 5631922..1da021c 100644 --- a/docs/source/foo.rst +++ b/docs/source/foo.rst @@ -46,6 +46,7 @@ Finished: arduino/detachinterrupt arduino/digitalread arduino/double + arduino/doublecast arduino/dowhile arduino/else arduino/float @@ -77,7 +78,7 @@ Finished: arduino/sq arduino/static arduino/string - + Unfinished; straightforward to convert: .. toctree:: diff --git a/docs/source/index.rst b/docs/source/index.rst index fdaf801..ac91c4f 100644 --- a/docs/source/index.rst +++ b/docs/source/index.rst @@ -15,19 +15,19 @@ Table of contents: .. TODO: be more Pythonic with a "parts of the documentation" thing .. toctree:: - :maxdepth: 2 - - Maple Quickstart Guide - Maple IDE Installation Guide - Maple IDE Documentation - Maple/Arduino Compatibility Reference - Maple Language Reference - Maple Library Reference - libmaple Command-Line Tools and APIs + :maxdepth: 1 + + Quickstart Guide + IDE Installation Guide + IDE Documentation + Language Reference + Arduino Compatibility Reference + Library Reference + Command-Line Tools and APIs Troubleshooting Hardware-Specific Documentation External Interrupts - Maple bootloader + Bootloader Known Problems [Temporary] Arduino docs TOC [Temporary] Wirish-only docs TOC diff --git a/docs/source/language.rst b/docs/source/language.rst index b2ef017..bbdbf90 100644 --- a/docs/source/language.rst +++ b/docs/source/language.rst @@ -9,16 +9,6 @@ The Maple can be programmed in the `Wiring `_ language, which is the same language used to program the `Arduino `_ boards. -Please see the extensive `language reference -`_ on the Arduino webpage for -more information, or follow a direct link below. - -.. warning:: - - The Arduino boards have different sizes for data types, so don't - trust their documentation for how many bytes an ``int``, ``long``, - etc. take up. The sizes of each data type on the Maple are given - in the :ref:`table below `. C or C++ programmers curious about the differences between the Wiring language and C++ may wish to skip to the @@ -59,268 +49,207 @@ Unique Maple Additions .. _language-arduino-docs: -Arduino Documentation Links ---------------------------- - -(This table was copied from http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Extended). - -+------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ -| Structure | Variables | Functions | -| | | | -+====================================+====================================+=========================================+ -| |**Constants** |**Digital I/O** | -|* `setup()`_ | | | -| |* `HIGH`_ | `LOW`_ |* `pinMode()`_ | -|* `loop()`_ | | | -| |* `INPUT`_ | `OUTPUT`_ |* `digitalWrite()`_ | -| | | | -|**Control Structures** |* `true`_ | `false`_ |* `digitalRead()`_ | -| | | | -|* `if`_ |* `integer constants`_ | | -| | |**Analog I/O** | -|* `if...else`_ |* `floating point constants`_ | | -| | |* `analogReference()`_ | -|* `for`_ | | | -| |**Data Types** |* `analogRead()`_ | -|* `switch/case`_ | | | -| |Primitive data types on the Maple |* `analogWrite()`_ - PWM | -|* `while`_ |have different sizes than on the | | -| |Arduino, since the Maple has a full | | -|* `do...while`_ |32-bit processor. The size of each |**Advanced I/O** | -| |such type on the Maple is given | | -|* `break`_ |below. |* `tone()`_ | -| | | | -|* `continue`_ |The ``word`` type is (deliberately) |* `noTone()`_ | -| |:ref:`not supported | | -|* `return`_ |`. |* `shiftOut()`_ | -| | | | -|* `goto`_ |* `void`_ |* `pulseIn()`_ | -| | | | -| |* `boolean`_ (1 byte) | | -|**Further syntax** | |**Time** | -| |* `char`_ (1 byte) | | -|* `;`_ (semicolon) | |* `millis()`_ | -| |* `unsigned char`_ (1 byte) | | -|* `{}`_ (curly braces) | |* `micros()`_ | -| |* `byte`_ (1 byte) | | -|* `//`_ (single line comment) | |* `delay()`_ | -| |* `int`_ (4 bytes) | | -|* `/\* \*/`_ (multi-line comment) | |* `delayMicroseconds()`_ | -| |* `unsigned int`_ (4 bytes) | | -|* `#define`_ | | | -| |* `long`_ (8 bytes) |**Math** | -|* `#include`_ | | | -| |* `unsigned long`_ (8 bytes) |* `min()`_ | -| | | | -|**Arithmetic Operators** |* `float`_ (4 bytes) |* `max()`_ | -| | | | -|* `=`_ (assignment operator) |* `double`_ (8 bytes) |* `abs()`_ | -| | | | -|* `+`_ (addition) |* `string`_ |* `constrain()`_ | -| | | | -|* `-`_ (subtraction) |* `array`_ |* `map()`_ | -| | | | -|* `*`_ (multiplication) | |* `pow()`_ | -| |**Conversion** | | -|* `/`_ (division) | |* `sqrt()`_ | -| |* `char()`_ | | -|* `%`_ (modulo) | | | -| |* `byte()`_ |**Trigonometry** | -| | | | -|**Comparison Operators** |* `int()`_ |* `sin()`_ | -| | | | -|* `==`_ (equal to) |* `word()`_ |* `cos()`_ | -| | | | -|* `!=`_ (not equal to) |* `long()`_ |* `tan()`_ | -| | | | -|* `<`_ (less than) |* `float()`_ | | -| | |**Random Numbers** | -|* `>`_ (greater than) | | | -| |**Variable Scope & Qualifiers** |* `randomSeed()`_ | -|* `<=`_ (less than or equal to) | | | -| |* `variable scope`_ |* `random()`_ | -|* `>=`_ (greater than or equal to) | | | -| |* `static`_ | | -| | |**Bits and Bytes** | -|**Boolean Operators** |* `volatile`_ | | -| | |* `lowByte()`_ | -|* `&&`_ (and) |* `const`_ | | -| | |* `highByte()`_ | -|* `||`_ (or) | | | -| |**Utilities** |* `bitRead()`_ | -|* `!`_ (not) | | | -| |* `sizeof()`_ (sizeof operator) |* `bitWrite()`_ | -| | | | -|**Pointer Access Operators** | |* `bitSet()`_ | -| | | | -|* `* dereference operator`_ | |* `bitClear()`_ | -| | | | -|* `& reference operator`_ | |* `bit()`_ | -| | | | -| | | | -|**Bitwise Operators** | |**External Interrupts** | -| | | | -|* `&`_ (bitwise and) | |For more information on external | -| | |interrupts on Maple, see | -|* `|`_ (bitwise or) | |`our reference page`_. | -| | | | -|* `^`_ (bitwise xor) | | | -| | |* `attachInterrupt()`_ | -|* `~`_ (bitwise not) | | | -| | |* `detachInterrupt()`_ | -|* `<<`_ (shift left) | | | -| | | | -|* `>>`_ (shift right) | |**Interrupts** | -| | | | -| | |* `interrupts()`_ | -|**Compound Operators** | | | -| | |* `noInterrupts()`_ | -|* `++`_ (increment) | | | -| | | | -|* `- -`_ (decrement) | |**Communication** | -| | | | -|* `+=`_ (compound addition) | |* `Serial`_ | -| | | | -|* `-=`_ (compound subtraction) | |**Looking for something else?** | -| | | | -|* `*=`_ (compound multiplication) | |See the :ref:`libraries` page for | -| | |interfacing with particular types of | -|* `/=`_ (compound division) | |hardware. Try the list of | -| | |`community-contributed code`_. Maple | -|* `&=`_ (compound bitwise and) | |links against `newlib`_ and allows the | -| | |use of any of its functions; see its | -|* `|=`_ (compound bitwise or) | |documentation for more details. | -| | | | -+------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ +Maple Language Reference +------------------------ + ++-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ +| Structure | Variables | Functions | +| | | | ++=================================================+==============================================+===================================================+ +|* :ref:`setup() ` |**Constants** |**Digital I/O** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`loop() ` |* :ref:`HIGH ` | |* :ref:`pinMode() ` | +| | :ref:`LOW ` | | +| | |* :ref:`digitalWrite() ` | +|**Control Structures** |* :ref:`INPUT ` | | | +| | :ref:`OUTPUT ` |* :ref:`digitalRead() ` | +|* :ref:`if ` | | | +| |* :ref:`true ` | | | +|* :ref:`if...else ` | :ref:`false ` |**Analog I/O** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`for ` |* :ref:`integer constants |* :ref:`analogRead() ` | +| | ` | | +|* :ref:`switch/case ` | |* :ref:`pwmWrite() ` | +| |* :ref:`floating point constants | (:ref:`analogWrite() ` is | +|* :ref:`while ` | ` | also available, though its use is discouraged) | +| | | | +|* :ref:`do...while ` | | | +| |**Data Types** |**Advanced I/O** | +|* :ref:`break ` | | | +| | The size of each datatype, in bytes, is |* tone(): TODO | +|* :ref:`continue ` | given in parentheses where appropriate. | | +| | |* noTone(): TODO | +|* :ref:`return ` | *Note*: The ``word`` type is (deliberately) | | +| | :ref:`not supported `. |* shiftOut(): TODO | +|* :ref:`goto ` | | | +| |* :ref:`void ` |* pulseIn(): TODO | +| | | | +|**Further syntax** |* :ref:`boolean ` (1 byte) | | +| | |**Time** | +|* :ref:`; ` (semicolon) |* :ref:`char ` (1 byte) | | +| | |* :ref:`millis() ` | +|* :ref:`{} ` (curly braces) |* :ref:`unsigned char | | +| | ` (1 byte) |* :ref:`micros() ` | +|* :ref:`// ` | | | +| (single line comment) |* :ref:`byte ` (1 byte) |* :ref:`delay() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`/\* \*/ |* :ref:`int ` (4 bytes) |* :ref:`delayMicroseconds() | +| ` | | ` | +| (multi-line comment) |* :ref:`unsigned int ` | | +| | (4 bytes) | | +|* :ref:`#define ` | |**Math** | +| |* :ref:`long ` (8 bytes) | | +|* :ref:`#include ` | |* :ref:`min() ` | +| |* :ref:`unsigned long ` | | +| | (8 bytes) |* :ref:`max() ` | +|**Arithmetic Operators** | | | +| |* :ref:`float ` (4 bytes) |* :ref:`abs() ` | +|* :ref:`= ` | | | +| (assignment operator) |* :ref:`double ` (8 bytes) |* :ref:`constrain() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`+ ` (addition) |* :ref:`string ` |* :ref:`map() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`- ` |* :ref:`array ` |* :ref:`pow() ` | +| (subtraction) | | | +| |* Also provided: ``int8``, ``int16``, |* :ref:`sqrt() ` | +|* :ref:`* ` | ``int32``, ``int64``, and their unsigned | | +| (multiplication) | counterparts ``uint8``, ``uint16``, | | +| | ``uint32``, ``uint64``. |**Trigonometry** | +|* :ref:`/ ` (division) | | | +| | |* :ref:`sin() ` | +|* :ref:`% ` (modulo) |**Conversion** | | +| | |* :ref:`cos() ` | +| |* :ref:`char() ` | | +|**Comparison Operators** | |* :ref:`tan() ` | +| |* :ref:`byte() ` | | +|* :ref:`== ` (equal to) | | | +| |* :ref:`int() ` |**Random Numbers** | +|* :ref:`\!= ` | | | +| (not equal to) |* :ref:`long() ` |* :ref:`randomSeed() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`< ` (less than) |* :ref:`float() ` |* :ref:`random() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`> ` |* :ref:`double() ` | | +| (greater than) | |**Bits and Bytes** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`<= ` |**Variable Scope & Qualifiers** |* :ref:`lowByte() ` | +| (less than or equal to) | | | +| |* :ref:`variables `, |* :ref:`highByte() ` is | +|* :ref:`>= ` | :ref:`scope ` | provided, though its use is discouraged. | +| (greater than or equal to) | | | +| |* :ref:`static ` |* :ref:`bitRead() ` | +| | | | +|**Boolean Operators** |* :ref:`volatile ` |* :ref:`bitWrite() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`&& ` (and) |* :ref:`const ` |* :ref:`bitSet() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`|| ` (or) | |* :ref:`bitClear() ` | +| |**Utilities** | | +|* :ref:`\! ` (not) | |* :ref:`bit() ` | +| |* :ref:`sizeof() ` | | +| | (``sizeof`` operator) | | +|**Pointer Access Operators** | |**External Interrupts** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`* dereference operator | |* :ref:`Reference Page ` | +| ` | | | +| | |* :ref:`attachInterrupt() | +|* :ref:`& reference operator | | ` | +| ` | | | +| | |* :ref:`detachInterrupt() | +| | | ` | +|**Bitwise Operators** | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`& ` | |**Interrupts** | +| (bitwise and) | | | +| | |* interrupts(): TODO | +|* :ref:`| ` | | | +| (bitwise or) | |* noInterrupts(): TODO | +| | | | +|* :ref:`^ ` | | | +| (bitwise xor) | |**Communication** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`~ ` | |* :ref:`SerialUSB ` | +| (bitwise not) | | | +| | |* :ref:`Serial ` | +|* :ref:`\<\< ` | | | +| (shift left) | |**Looking for something else?** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`>> ` | | See the :ref:`libraries` page for interfacing with| +| (shift right) | | particular types of hardware. Try the list of | +| | | `community-contributed code` . Maple links | +| | | against `newlib` and allows the use of any of its | +|**Compound Operators** | | functions; see its documentation for more details.| +| | | | +|* :ref:`++ ` | | | +| (increment) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`- - ` | | | +| (decrement) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`+= ` | | | +| (compound add) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`-= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| subtract) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`*= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| multiply) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`/= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| divide) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`&= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| bitwise and) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`|= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| bitwise or) | | | +| | | | ++-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ .. _language-missing-features: -Stub TODO: fill in other missing features, like analogReference() - -.. note:: - - The ``word`` data type is not supported on the Maple. This is by - choice. - - We decided not to include it because, while the Maple has 32-bit - words, the word size on an Arduino board is only 16 bits, and code - that uses the ``word`` type is likely to rely on that fact. - - By not supporting ``word``, you'll get a compile error when porting - Arduino code to your Maple instead of potentially weird, - hard-to-debug runtime behavior. - - If you're porting over Arduino code and really want ``word``, you - can put the following at the top of the file you're porting:: - - typedef uint16 word; - -.. _if: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If -.. _if...else: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Else -.. _for: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/For -.. _switch/case: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SwitchCase -.. _while: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/While -.. _do...while: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DoWhile -.. _break: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Break -.. _continue: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Continue -.. _return: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Return -.. _goto: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Goto - -.. _;: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SemiColon -.. _{}: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Braces -.. _//: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Comments -.. _/\* \*/: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Comments -.. _#define: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Define -.. _#include: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Include - -.. _=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Assignment -.. _+: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic -.. _-: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic -.. _*: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic -.. _/: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Arithmetic -.. _%: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Modulo - -.. _==: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If -.. _!=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If -.. _<: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If -.. _>: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If -.. _<=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If -.. _>=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/If - -.. _&&: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean -.. _||: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean -.. _!: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Boolean - -.. _* dereference operator: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Pointer -.. _& reference operator: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Pointer - -.. _&: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd -.. _|: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd -.. _^: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseAnd -.. _~: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseXorNot -.. _<<: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bitshift -.. _>>: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Bitshift - -.. _++: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Increment -.. FIXME can't freaking get two hyphens to show up! sphinx turns "--" -.. into an endash, whatever, fine, try to escape like "\-\-", that -.. ALSO becomes endash (!@#$), damn, well, maybe someone else is -.. eating my slash, try "\\-\\-", nope, that turns into a motherfing -.. \-\-. i hate everything. -.. _- -: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Increment -.. _+=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IncrementCompound -.. _-=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IncrementCompound -.. _*=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IncrementCompound -.. _/=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IncrementCompound -.. _&=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseCompound -.. _|=: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BitwiseCompound - -.. _HIGH: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants -.. _LOW: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants -.. _INPUT: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants -.. _OUTPUT: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants -.. _true: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants -.. _false: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constants -.. _integer constants: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntegerConstants -.. _floating point constants: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Fpconstants - -.. _void: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Void -.. _boolean: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/BooleanVariables -.. _char: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Char -.. _unsigned char: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedChar -.. _byte: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Byte -.. _int: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Int -.. _unsigned int: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedInt -.. _word: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Word -.. _long: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Long -.. _unsigned long: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/UnsignedLong -.. _float: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Float -.. _double: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Double -.. _string: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/String -.. _array: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Array - -.. _char(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/CharCast -.. _byte(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/ByteCast -.. _int(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/IntCast -.. _word(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/WordCast -.. _long(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/LongCast -.. _float(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/FloatCast - -.. _variable scope: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Scope -.. _static: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Static -.. _volatile: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Volatile -.. _const: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Const -.. _sizeof(): http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Sizeof - -.. Links for the standard Arduino built-in functions are included as -.. part of the standard epilog. +Missing Arduino Features +------------------------ + +Stub TODO: fill in other missing features + +**analogReference()** + + It is not possible to implement this function on the Maple + hardware. It will be possible on the upcoming Maple Native. + +.. _language-no-word: + +**word** + + Readers familiar with the Arduino environment may notice that the + ``word`` datatype is missing from the above table's list of data + types. We chose **not to provide** the ``word`` data type on the + Maple. If you want a 16-bit unsigned integer, use the ``uint16`` + type instead. + + While the Maple has 32-bit words, the word size on an Arduino + board is only 16 bits, and code that uses the ``word`` type is + likely to rely on that fact. + + By not supporting ``word``, you'll get a compile error when + porting Arduino code to the Maple instead of potentially weird, + hard-to-debug runtime behavior. + + If you really must have ``word``, you can include the following + ``typedef`` in your program:: + + typedef uint16 word; + .. _our reference page: http://leaflabs.com/docs/external-interrupts/ -.. _Serial: http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Serial -.. _community-contributed code: http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Main/GeneralCodeLibrary .. _newlib: http://sourceware.org/newlib/ - .. _arduino_c_for_c_hackers: Note for C/C++ Programmers @@ -331,7 +260,11 @@ you C programmers should remember that `C++ is not a superset of C `_) who want a better understanding of the differences between C++ and the Wiring language. The good news is that the differences are relatively -few. +few; Wiring is just a thin wrapper around C++. + +Some potentially better news is that the Maple can be programmed using +a :ref:`standard Unix toolchain `, so if you'd rather +stick with :command:`gcc`, :command:`make`, and friends, you can. A *sketch* is the IDE's notion of a project; it consists of one or more files written in the Wiring language, which is mostly the same as @@ -361,8 +294,8 @@ The Wiring language also does not require you to define your own are required to define two functions, ``setup`` and ``loop``, with type signatures :: - void setup(void) - void loop(void) + void setup(void); + void loop(void); Once a sketch is uploaded to a Maple and begins to run, ``setup()`` is called once, and then ``loop()`` is called repeatedly. The IDE diff --git a/docs/source/unix-toolchain.rst b/docs/source/unix-toolchain.rst index b595f70..2bb584a 100644 --- a/docs/source/unix-toolchain.rst +++ b/docs/source/unix-toolchain.rst @@ -32,20 +32,16 @@ GCC compiler tools `_ please post in the forums, so we can fold your tips into this document! -* :ref:`Linux setup ` -* :ref:`OS X setup ` -* :ref:`Test compilation ` -* :ref:`Upload a program ` -* :ref:`Communicate over USB-serial interface ` -* :ref:`Starting your own projects ` -* :ref:`Debug with OpenOCD ` -* :ref:`Do it all with Code::Blocks ` -* :ref:`Go forth exuberantly! ` +.. contents:: Contents + :local: .. _toolchain-linux-setup: -Linux Setup ------------ +Setup +----- + +Linux +^^^^^ These instructions are oriented towards Linux users using a contemporary Debian-based distribution. @@ -55,7 +51,7 @@ contemporary Debian-based distribution. First I'll give the commands to run, then explain:: $ sudo aptitude install build-essential git-core wget screen dfu-util \ - openocd python python-serial + openocd python python-serial You'll want to install a bunch of developer "basics" like :command:`make`, :command:`tar`, etc. A good catch-all for these @@ -90,12 +86,12 @@ package; this could also be installed with `easy_install **2. Fetch libmaple and Compiler Toolchain** :: - $ cd ~ - $ git clone git://github.com/leaflabs/libmaple.git libmaple - $ cd libmaple + $ cd ~ + $ git clone git://github.com/leaflabs/libmaple.git libmaple + $ cd libmaple $ wget http://static.leaflabs.com/pub/codesourcery/gcc-arm-none-eabi-latest-linux32.tar.gz $ tar xvf arm-*-linux32.tar.gz - $ export PATH=$PATH:~/libmaple/arm/bin # or wherever these tools ended up + $ export PATH=$PATH:~/libmaple/arm/bin # or wherever these tools ended up This step is fairly straightforward: do a git clone of the `libmaple repository `_ to some directory, @@ -114,9 +110,9 @@ relative path calls and references. From the libmaple directory, :: - $ groups # make sure it includes plugdev; if not add, yourself to it - $ sudo cp support/scripts/45-maple.rules /etc/udev/rules.d/45-maple.rules - $ sudo /etc/init.d/udev restart + $ groups # make sure it includes plugdev; if not add, yourself to it + $ sudo cp support/scripts/45-maple.rules /etc/udev/rules.d/45-maple.rules + $ sudo /etc/init.d/udev restart As a security precaution on linux, unknown USB devices can only be accessed by the superuser. This udev script identifies the Maple based @@ -132,8 +128,8 @@ Great! Test your setup by :ref:`compiling a sample program .. _toolchain-osx-setup: -OS X Setup ----------- +OS X +^^^^ These instructions have been tested successfully on OS X 10.6.4. As stated previously, this document assumes a general level of Unix @@ -185,7 +181,7 @@ You will need the following tools to get started: $ ln -s /Applications/OpenMoko\ Flasher.app/Contents/Mac\ OS/dfu-util \ /somewhere/on/your/PATH/dfu-util - .. note:: + .. note:: Just copying the binary somewhere doesn't work, as it relies on dynamically linked libraries found elsewhere in the .app bundle. It's possible to pull just the relevant pieces out of the @@ -426,7 +422,7 @@ then `install Code::Blocks `_. You can do this on Linux with:: - $ sudo aptitude install codeblocks + $ sudo aptitude install codeblocks The first time it runs you'll maybe want to disable all the glitzy "Getting Started" crap (when will they learn?). We've added a .cbp diff --git a/docs/source/wirish.rst b/docs/source/wirish.rst index 2773e24..e8e608e 100644 --- a/docs/source/wirish.rst +++ b/docs/source/wirish.rst @@ -7,3 +7,4 @@ wirish/pwmwrite wirish/types + wirish/serialusb diff --git a/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst b/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst index b1f0515..7667a72 100644 --- a/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst +++ b/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst @@ -24,26 +24,25 @@ Example Sets the output to the LED proportional to the value read from the potentiometer (adapted for Maple from the Arduino `analogWrite() -reference `_\ ):: +reference `_):: - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to pin 13 (Maple-specific) + + int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to pin 13 (Maple) int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer connected to analog pin 3 int val = 0; // variable to store the read value - + void setup() { pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the LED pin as output pinMode(analogPin, PWM); // sets the potentiometer pin as PWM - // output (Maple-specific) + // output } - + void loop() { val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin analogWrite(ledPin, val / 16); // analogRead values go from 0 to 4095, // analogWrite values from 0 to 65535 - // (Maple-specific) } See Also -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5e587be27a7c3bd854b686952a5c9637a2432ff0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Marti Bolivar Date: Sun, 28 Nov 2010 11:23:33 -0500 Subject: reorganized all the arduino/ docs into a lang/ subdirectory since they're properly CC attributed now. --- docs/source/arduino/abs.rst | 42 ---- docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst | 152 -------------- docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst | 164 --------------- docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst | 129 ------------ docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst | 46 ----- docs/source/arduino/array.rst | 123 ----------- docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst | 70 ------- docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst | 102 --------- docs/source/arduino/bit.rst | 48 ----- docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst | 47 ----- docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst | 49 ----- docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst | 49 ----- docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst | 148 ------------- docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst | 231 --------------------- docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst | 186 ----------------- docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst | 40 ---- docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst | 91 -------- docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst | 55 ----- docs/source/arduino/braces.rst | 97 --------- docs/source/arduino/break.rst | 35 ---- docs/source/arduino/byte.rst | 34 --- docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst | 53 ----- docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt | 9 - docs/source/arduino/char.rst | 52 ----- docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst | 39 ---- docs/source/arduino/comments.rst | 67 ------ docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst | 87 -------- docs/source/arduino/const.rst | 52 ----- docs/source/arduino/constants.rst | 302 --------------------------- docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst | 65 ------ docs/source/arduino/continue.rst | 34 --- docs/source/arduino/cos.rst | 33 --- docs/source/arduino/define.rst | 56 ----- docs/source/arduino/delay.rst | 70 ------- docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst | 65 ------ docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst | 37 ---- docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst | 61 ------ docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst | 116 ----------- docs/source/arduino/double.rst | 49 ----- docs/source/arduino/doublecast.rst | 30 --- docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst | 27 --- docs/source/arduino/else.rst | 54 ----- docs/source/arduino/float.rst | 58 ------ docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst | 31 --- docs/source/arduino/for.rst | 142 ------------- docs/source/arduino/goto.rst | 130 ------------ docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst | 53 ----- docs/source/arduino/if.rst | 81 -------- docs/source/arduino/include.rst | 71 ------- docs/source/arduino/increment.rst | 44 ---- docs/source/arduino/int.rst | 70 ------- docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst | 32 --- docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst | 62 ------ docs/source/arduino/long.rst | 55 ----- docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst | 30 --- docs/source/arduino/loop.rst | 45 ---- docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst | 45 ---- docs/source/arduino/map.rst | 122 ----------- docs/source/arduino/max.rst | 63 ------ docs/source/arduino/micros.rst | 69 ------- docs/source/arduino/millis.rst | 70 ------- docs/source/arduino/min.rst | 66 ------ docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst | 77 ------- docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst | 59 ------ docs/source/arduino/notone.rst | 50 ----- docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst | 76 ------- docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst | 28 --- docs/source/arduino/pow.rst | 29 --- docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst | 82 -------- docs/source/arduino/random.rst | 95 --------- docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst | 73 ------- docs/source/arduino/return.rst | 61 ------ docs/source/arduino/scope.rst | 62 ------ docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst | 25 --- docs/source/arduino/serial.rst | 68 ------ docs/source/arduino/setup.rst | 34 --- docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst | 136 ------------ docs/source/arduino/sin.rst | 28 --- docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst | 64 ------ docs/source/arduino/sq.rst | 42 ---- docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst | 25 --- docs/source/arduino/static.rst | 57 ----- docs/source/arduino/string.rst | 131 ------------ docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst | 9 - docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst | 91 -------- docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst | 117 ----------- docs/source/arduino/tan.rst | 38 ---- docs/source/arduino/tone.rst | 81 -------- docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst | 44 ---- docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst | 80 -------- docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst | 66 ------ docs/source/arduino/variables.rst | 191 ----------------- docs/source/arduino/void.rst | 40 ---- docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst | 73 ------- docs/source/arduino/while.rst | 49 ----- docs/source/arduino/word.rst | 32 --- docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst | 54 ----- docs/source/bootloader.rst | 51 +++-- docs/source/external-interrupts.rst | 2 +- docs/source/foo.rst | 122 ----------- docs/source/ide.rst | 12 ++ docs/source/index.rst | 16 +- docs/source/lang/abs.rst | 42 ++++ docs/source/lang/analogread.rst | 152 ++++++++++++++ docs/source/lang/analogwrite.rst | 164 +++++++++++++++ docs/source/lang/arithmetic.rst | 129 ++++++++++++ docs/source/lang/arithmeticcompound.rst | 46 +++++ docs/source/lang/array.rst | 123 +++++++++++ docs/source/lang/assignment.rst | 70 +++++++ docs/source/lang/attachinterrupt.rst | 102 +++++++++ docs/source/lang/bit.rst | 48 +++++ docs/source/lang/bitclear.rst | 47 +++++ docs/source/lang/bitread.rst | 49 +++++ docs/source/lang/bitset.rst | 49 +++++ docs/source/lang/bitshift.rst | 148 +++++++++++++ docs/source/lang/bitwisecompound.rst | 231 +++++++++++++++++++++ docs/source/lang/bitwisemath.rst | 186 +++++++++++++++++ docs/source/lang/bitwrite.rst | 40 ++++ docs/source/lang/boolean.rst | 91 ++++++++ docs/source/lang/booleanvariables.rst | 55 +++++ 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b/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0ec6b47..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/abs.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-abs: - -abs(x) -====== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) computes the absolute value of a number. - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: the number. - -Returns -------- - -**x**: if **x** is greater than or equal to 0. - -**-x**: if **x** is less than 0. - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way ``abs()`` is implemented, avoid using other -functions or causing side effects inside the parentheses, as it may -lead to incorrect results:: - - abs(a++); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - abs(a); // use this instead - - a++; // keep other operations outside abs() - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Maple's implementation of ``abs()`` is compatible with Arduino. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst deleted file mode 100644 index cd18567..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogread.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,152 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-analogread: - -analogRead() -============ - -Used to perform ADC conversion. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: analogRead - -Discussion ----------- - -Reads the value from the specified analog pin. The Maple board -contains a 16-channel, 12-bit analog to digital converter. This means -that it will map input voltages between 0 and 3.3 volts into integer -values between 0 and 4095. This yields a resolution between readings -of 3.3V / 4096 units, or 0.8 millivolts. However, a number of factors -interfere with getting full accuracy and precision. For more -information, see :ref:`adc`. - -Before calling analogRead() on a pin, that pin must first be -configured for analog input, using :ref:`arduino-pinMode` (you only -have to do this once, so it's usually done in :ref:`arduino-setup`\ ). - -It takes about 0.8 microseconds (.0000008 seconds) to read an analog -input, so the maximum sample rate using this function is approximately -1.3 million samples per second\ [#fsamp]_. - - -Parameter Discussion --------------------- - -The pin parameter is the number of the analog input pin to read from. -Header pins on the Maple with ADC functionality (marked as "AIN" on -the silkscreen) are: - - 0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28 - -Note that pins 3, 27, and 28 are not marked AIN on the silkscreen -for Maple revisions through Rev 5, however, they **do work** as -analog input pins. - -Note ----- - -If the analog input pin is not connected to anything, the value -returned by analogRead() will fluctuate based on a number of factors -(e.g. the values of the other analog inputs, how close your hand is to -the board, etc.) in a seemingly random way. - - -Example -------- - - :: - - - int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer wiper (middle terminal) connected - // to analog pin 3. outside leads to ground and +3.3V - int val = 0; // variable to store the value read - - void setup() { - pinMode(analogPin, INPUT_ANALOG); // set up pin for analog input - SerialUSB.begin(); // set up usb virtual COM port - } - - void loop() { - val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin - SerialUSB.println(val); // print the value, for debugging with - // a serial monitor - } - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Arduino board contains a 6 channel (8 channels on the Mini and -Nano, 16 on the Mega), 10-bit analog to digital converter with an -input voltage range of 0V--5V. This means that it will map input -voltages between 0 and 5 volts (which is **larger** than Maple's range -of 0V-3.3V) into integer values between 0 and 1023 (which is -**smaller** than the Maple's range of 0--4095). - -This yields a theoretical resolution between readings of: 5 volts / -1024 units or .0049 volts (4.9 mV) per unit on Arduino boards, which -is larger, and thus less precise, than Maple's 0.0008 volts (0.8 mV). - -If your program expects Arduino-style 10-bit ADC, you can :ref:`right -shift ` the value of a Maple readout by 2, like so:: - - // right shift means that the result will be between 0 and 1023; - // be aware that you're losing a lot of precision if you do this - int adc_reading = analogRead(pin) >> 2; - -On the Arduino, the input range and resolution can be changed using -their implementation of `analogReference() -`_\ . Because of the -way its hardware (as of Rev 5) was designed, it's not possible to -implement analogReference on the Maple, so this function doesn't -exist. If your inputs lie in a different voltage range than 0V--3.3V, -you'll need to bring them into that range before using analogRead. -Some basic tools to accomplish this are `resistor dividers -`_ and `Zener diodes -`_\ -. However, opamps and other powered components can also be used if -greater precision is required. - -Finally, On the Arduino, it takes significantly longer to read analog -input: about 100 microseconds (0.0001 s), so the maximum reading rate -is 10,000 times a second. - - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`ADC note ` -- `(Arduino) Tutorial: Analog Input Pins `_ - - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fsamp] This is based on the current configuration of a 55.5 cycle - sample time, at 72 MHz. However, the minimum sample time *possible* - is 1.5 cycles, leading to a theoretical maximum of approximately 48 - million samples per second (of course, doing anything with the - readings also consumes cycles, so this maximum can't be reached in - practice). - - See the `STM32 Reference Manual `_, §§11.12.4--5 - (pp. 225--226), for more information on the low-level bit twiddling - currently necessary to change the sample time. For examples of how - the ADCs are configured in libmaple, see `adc.h - `_ - and `adc.c - `_\ - . Be aware that changing the sample time has important - consequences related to the impedance of the device connected to - the input pin. If you want to make changes, as a minimum, you - should first read ST's application notes on `ADC modes - `_ and `ADC oversampling - `_. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index a1057ab..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/analogwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,164 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-analogwrite: - -analogWrite() -============= - -.. note:: - - On the Maple, calling analogWrite() is the same as calling - :ref:`wirish-pwmwrite`\ ; see that function's documentation for more - information. - - This is because PWM is not true analog output (i.e., is not the - output of a `DAC - `_\ ), so - the function is badly named. For instance, **analogWrite() has - absolutely nothing to do with** :ref:`arduino-analogread`\ , which - is potentially confusing. - - The alias of analogWrite() to pwmWrite() is provided (sigh) for the - sake of compatibility with Arduino, but we recommend using - :ref:`wirish-pwmwrite` when writing new software, for clarity. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -There are a few important differences between Arduino's `analogWrite() -`_ and Maple's -:ref:`wirish-pwmwrite` that you should keep in mind. In each case, we -have some recommendations you can use to help converting from Arduino -to Maple. - -Difference 1: Duty cycle range is different -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -The first and most important difference is that the largest possible -value for the duty cycle is much bigger on the Maple. Using Arduino's -analogWrite(), the duty cycle ranges between 0--255 (always off -- -always on)\ [#fbytemax]_\ . Using Maple's pwmWrite(), the duty cycle -ranges from 0--65,535 by default\ [#fuint16max]_\ . - -This is a good thing! The greater range of values on the Maple gives -you much more precise control over the duty cycle of your PWM output. - -If you're porting code from the Arduino and want a quick-and-dirty -fix, one solution is to :ref:`map ` the argument to -analogWrite into the right range:: - - // Arduino code: - analogWrite(pin, duty); - - // Becomes Maple code: - analogWrite(pin, map(duty, 0, 255, 0, 65535)); - -This will convert values in the range 0-255 to values in the range -0--65,635, which is the correct default range for all of the timers -which control PWM output. See the :ref:`timers reference ` -for more information. - -Another fix is to consult the :ref:`pin mapping mega table -` to find the timer which controls PWM on the -pin you're using, then set that Timer's overflow to 255. Subsequent -calls to analogWrite() should work as on the Arduino (with the same -loss of precision). Note, however, that that affects the overflow for -the **entire timer**, so other code relying on that timer (such as any -:ref:`interrupts ` the timer controls) will -likely need to be modified as well. - -Difference 2: You must use pinMode() to set up PWM -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -The second difference is that on the Maple, you **must** set up the pin -for PWM output using :ref:`arduino-pinmode`\ , with argument ``PWM``. -This should just be one extra line of code in your -:ref:`arduino-setup` function. Example:: - - void setup() { - // set up pin 9 for PWM - pinMode(9, PWM); - } - -This also means that you can't later call :ref:`arduino-digitalread` -or :ref:`arduino-digitalwrite` on that pin (unless some time in -between, you use pinMode() to reconfigure that pin for ``INPUT`` or -``OUTPUT``; see the :ref:`arduino-pinmode` page for more information). - -Difference 3: No PWM on pin 10 -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -On the Maple, the pins which support PWM are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, -9, 11, 12, and 14, or twelve pins in total. That is at least as -*many* PWM pins as any Arduino board, but there are differences in -*which* pins support it. - -* On **most Arduino boards** (those with the ATmega168 or ATmega328; - this includes the **Arduino Uno**), this function works on pins 3, - 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11, or six pins total. Note that these boards - support PWM on pin 10, while Maple does not. - -* On the **Arduino Mega**, PWM works on pins 2 through 13, or twelve pins - total. Note that this board supports PWM on pins 4, 10, and 13, - while the Maple does not. Maple supports PWM on pins 0, 1, and 14, - which the Mega does not, making the total number of pins supporting - PWM equal on these boards. - -* **Older Arduino boards** with an ATmega8 only support analogWrite() on - pins 9, 10, and 11. Maple does not support PWM on pin 10. - -In all cases, Arduino boards support PWM on pin 10, unlike Maple. We -did our best to make PWM as pin-compatible as possible; however, -circuit layout constraints prevented us from achieving perfect -compatibility. - -The "safest" pins to use for PWM output are pins 9 and 11. These pins -work on any Arduino board and on Maple. The "safe" pins, which work -on most recent Arduino boards, the Arduino Mega and the Maple, are -pins 3, 5, 6, 9, and 11. Thus, if you want your project to be as -portable as possible between Maple and Arduino, we recommend using the -"safest" pins first, then the "safe" pins, as necessary. - -Difference 4: PWM frequency -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -The frequency of the PWM signal (i.e., the frequency of a complete -on/off cycle) on the Arduino is approximately 490 Hz. - -On the Maple, the frequency is configurable, defaulting to about 1100 -Hz, or 1.1 KHz. This is because the PWM frequency is the frequency of -the timer which controls PWM output on the particular pin (\ -:ref:`the PWM tutorial has the details `\ ). - -If your application absolutely requires Arduino's PWM frequency (it -probably doesn't), then the steps are: - -1. Figure out which timer controls PWM output on your pin (\ :ref:`this table ` is your friend here). Let's say it's ``Timern``\ , where ``n`` is some number 1, 2, 3, or 4. - -2. Call ``Timern.setPeriod(2041)``\ . This will set the timer's period to approximately 2041 microseconds, which is a frequency of approximately 490 Hz. - -Be aware that this will change the period for the **entire timer**\ , -and will affect anything else in your program that depends on that -timer. One example is :ref:`interrupts `\ . -You've been :ref:`warned `\ . - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`Maple PWM tutorial ` - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fbytemax] This is because the value for the duty cycle on Arduino - must fit in 1 byte of memory, and an unsigned (i.e., nonnegative) - integer with size 1 byte can hold the values between 0 and 255. - -.. [#fuint16max] This is because the value for the duty cycle on the - Maple uses 2 bytes of memory, and an unsigned (i.e., nonnegative) - integer with size 2 bytes can hold the values between 0 and 65,535. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst b/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 69cf166..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/arithmetic.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,129 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-arithmetic: - -Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, & Division -================================================= - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Description ------------ - -These operators return the sum, difference, product, or quotient -(respectively) of the two operands. The operation is conducted using -the data type of the operands, so, for example, ``9 / 4`` gives ``2`` -since 9 and 4 are :ref:`int variables `. - -This also means that the operation can overflow if the result is -larger than that which can be stored in the data type (e.g. adding 1 -to an :ref:`arduino-int` with the value 2147483647 gives --2147483648). If the operands are of different types, the "larger" -type is used for the calculation. - -.. _arduino-arithmetic-typeconversion: - -.. note:: The specifics of these rules are beyond the scope of this - documentation; for more information, see `The C++ Programming - Language `_\ , by Bjarne - Stroustroup, Appendix C, especially §§C.4-C.6, or `this WikiBooks - entry on C++ type conversion - `_. - -.. note:: For more information on how computers represent integers, - see the Wikipedia page on `two's complement - `_. - -If one of the numbers (operands) are of the type **float** or of type -**double**, floating point math will be used for the -calculation. - -Examples --------- - - :: - - y = y + 3; - x = x - 7; - i = j * 6; - r = r / 5; - - -Syntax ------- - - :: - - result = value1 + value2; - result = value1 - value2; - result = value1 * value2; - result = value1 / value2; - - -Parameters ----------- - -**value1**: any numeric variable or constant - -**value2**: any numeric variable or constant - -Programming Tips ----------------- - -- Know that :ref:`integer constants ` - default to :ref:`int `, so some constant calculations - may overflow (e.g., 200000 * 5000000 will yield a negative result). - -- Choose variable sizes that are large enough to hold the largest - results from your calculations. - -- Know at what point your variable will "roll over" and also what - happens in the other direction e.g. (0 - 1) for unsigned arithmetic, - or (0 - -2,147,483,648) for signed arithmetic. - -- For math that requires fractions, float variables may be used, but - be aware of their drawbacks: large size and slow computation speeds - (the STM32 has no floating point hardware, so all floating point - calculations have to be done in software). - -- Use cast operator, e.g. ``(int)myFloat`` to convert one variable type - to another on the fly. - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Since the STM32 processor on the Maple is a 32-bit machine, the int -type overflows at a much higher value on Maple than on Arduino. In -particular, on Maple, ints do not overflow (become negative) until -they reach 2,147,483,648; on the Arduino, they overflow at 32,767. -Because of this, programs running on Maple are much less likely to run -into overflow issues. The following table summarizes the sizes and -ranges of integer datatypes on the Maple (the ranges of long long -types are approximate): - -.. _arduino-arithmetic-int-sizes: - -.. csv-table:: - :header: Datatype, Unsigned range, Signed range, Size (bytes) - :widths: 8, 12, 17, 8 - - ``char``, 0 --- 255, -128 --- 127, 1 - ``short``, "0 --- 65,535", "-32,768 --- 32,767", 2 - ``int``, "0 --- 4,294,967,295", "-2,147,483,648 --- 2,147,483,647", 4 - ``long``, "0 --- 4,294,967,295", "-2,147,483,648 --- 2,147,483,647", 4 - ``long long``, "0 --- 1.8*10\ :sup:`19`\ " (approx.), "-9.2*10\ :sup:`18` --- 9.2*10\ :sup:`18` (approx.)", 8 - - -See Also --------- - -- The individual sizes (in bits) of various available types are - defined in `libmaple_types.h - `_\ - . - -- :ref:`sizeof `\ () - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst b/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 734ef9d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/arithmeticcompound.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-arithmeticcompound: - -Compound Arithmetic Operators (``+=`` , ``-=``, ``*=``, ``/=``) -=============================================================== - -Description ------------ - -Perform a mathematical operation on a variable with another constant -or variable. These operators are just a convenient shorthand:: - - x += y; // equivalent to the expression x = x + y; - x -= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x - y; - x *= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x * y; - x /= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x / y; - -Here is an example:: - - int x = 2; - int y = 10; - - x += 4; // x now contains 6 - x -= 3; // x now contains 3 - x *= y; // x now contains 30 - x /= 2; // x now contains 15 - x += max(20, 6); // x now contains 35 - x -= sq(5); // x now contains 15 - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: a numeric variable - -**y**: a numeric variable, number constant, or any other expression -that evaluates to a number (e.g. call to a function that returns a -number). - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`Arithmetic operators ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/array.rst b/docs/source/arduino/array.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e49cc18..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/array.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,123 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-array: - -Arrays -====== - -An array is a collection of variables that are accessed with an index -number. Arrays in the C++ programming language, in which the Maple is -programmed, can be complicated, but using simple arrays is relatively -straightforward. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Creating (Declaring) an Array ------------------------------ - -All of the methods below are valid ways to create (declare) an -array. :: - - int myInts[6]; - int myPins[] = {2, 4, 8, 3, 6}; - int mySensVals[6] = {2, 4, -8, 3, 2}; - char message[6] = "hello"; - -You can declare an array without initializing it, as with myInts. In -the line referring to myPins, we declare an array without explicitly -choosing a size. The compiler counts the elements and creates an -array of the appropriate size. - -Finally, you can both initialize and size your array, as in -mySensVals. Note that when declaring an array with elements of type -char, one more element than your initialization is required, to hold -the required `null character `_. - - -Accessing an Array ------------------- - - -.. compound:: - - Arrays are **zero indexed**; that is, referring to the array - initialization above, the first element of the array is at index 0, - hence :: - - mySensVals[0] == 2; - mySensVals[1] == 4 - - and so forth. - -It also means that in an array with ten elements, index nine is the -last element. Hence:: - - int myArray[10]={9,3,2,4,3,2,7,8,9,11}; - // myArray[9] contains 11 - // myArray[10] is invalid and contains random information (other memory address) - -For this reason, you should be careful in accessing arrays. Accessing -past the end of an array (using an index number greater than your -declared array size - 1) is reading from memory that is in use for -other purposes. Reading from these locations is probably not going to -do much except yield invalid data. Writing to random memory locations -is definitely a bad idea, and can often lead to unhappy results such -as crashes or program malfunction. This can also be a difficult bug to -track down. - -Unlike Basic or Java, the C compiler does no checking to see if array -access is within legal bounds of the array size that you have -declared. - - -To assign a value to an array ------------------------------ - :: - - mySensVals[0] = 10; - - -To retrieve a value from an array ---------------------------------- - - :: - - x = mySensVals[4]; - - -Arrays and ``for`` Loops ------------------------- - -Arrays are often manipulated inside :ref:`for loops `, where -the loop counter is used as the index for each array element. For -example, to print the elements of an array over the serial port, you -could do something like this:: - - int i; - for (i = 0; i < 5; i = i + 1) { - SerialUSB.println(myPins[i]); - } - - -Example -------- - -For a complete program that demonstrates the use of arrays, see the -Arduino `Knight Rider example -`_\ (which will run -unmodified on the Maple). - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Arrays on Maple are identical those on Arduino. - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`Storing arrays in FLASH memory ` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst b/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 4907473..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/assignment.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-assignment: - -= assignment operator (single equal sign) -========================================= - -Stores the value to the right of the equal sign in the variable to -the left of the equal sign. - -The single equal sign in the C++ programming language is called the -assignment operator. It has a different meaning than in algebra -class, where it indicated an equation or equality. The assignment -operator tells the microcontroller to evaluate whatever value or -expression is on the right side of the equal sign, and store it in -the variable to the left of the equal sign [#fgross]_. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int sensVal; // declare an integer variable named sensVal - senVal = analogRead(0); // store the (digitized) input voltage at analog pin 0 in SensVal - - - -Programming Tips ----------------- - -The variable on the left side of the assignment operator ( = sign ) -needs to be able to hold the value stored in it. If it is not large -enough to hold a value, the value stored in the variable will be -incorrect. - -Don't confuse the assignment operator [ = ] (single equal sign) -with the comparison operator [ == ] (double equal signs), which -evaluates whether two expressions are equal. - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Assignments on the Maple are identical to those on Arduino. - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `if (comparison operators) `_ -- `char `_ -- `int `_ -- `long `_ - - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fgross] Experienced C++ programmers know this to be an - oversimplification of what happens when the variable on the left - hand side is an object. See Richard Gillam's wonderful and scary - `The Anatomy of the Assignment Operator - `_ - for more information. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3714709..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/attachinterrupt.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,102 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-attachinterrupt: - -attachInterrupt() -================= - -Used to specify a function to call when an external interrupt (like an -GPIO changing from LOW to HIGH, a button getting pressed, etc.) -occurs. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: attachInterrupt - -.. doxygenenum:: ExtIntTriggerMode - -.. doxygentypedef:: voidFuncPtr - -Discussion ----------- - -Because the function will run in interrupt context, inside of it, -:ref:`arduino-delay` won't work, and the value returned by -:ref:`arduino-millis` will not increment. Serial data received while -in the function may be lost. You should declare as ``volatile`` any -global variables that you modify within the attached function. - -There are a few constraints you should be aware of if you're using -more than one interrupt at a time; the :ref:`external-interrupts` page -has the details. - - -Using Interrupts ----------------- - -Interrupts are useful for making things happen automatically in -microcontroller programs, and can help solve timing problems. A -good task for using an interrupt might be reading a rotary encoder, -or monitoring user input. - - -If you wanted to insure that a program always caught the pulses -from a rotary encoder, never missing a pulse, it would make it very -tricky to write a program to do anything else, because the program -would need to constantly poll the sensor lines for the encoder, in -order to catch pulses when they occurred. Other sensors have a -similar interface dynamic too, such as trying to read a sound -sensor that is trying to catch a click, or an infrared slot sensor -(photo-interrupter) trying to catch a coin drop. In all of these -situations, using an interrupt can free the microcontroller to get -some other work done while not missing the doorbell. - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int maple_led_pin = 13; - volatile int state = LOW; // must declare volatile, since it's - // modified within the blink handler - - void setup() { - pinMode(maple_led_pin, OUTPUT); - attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); - } - - void loop() { - digitalWrite(maple_led_pin, state); - } - - void blink() { - state = !state; - } - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Most Arduino boards have two external interrupts: numbers 0 (on -digital pin 2) and 1 (on digital pin 3). The Arduino Mega has an -additional four: numbers 2 (pin 21), 3 (pin 20), 4 (pin 19), and 5 -(pin 18). On the Maple, you don't have to remember which interrupt -number goes with which pin -- just tell ``attachInterrupt()`` the pin -you want. - - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`detachInterrupt ` -- :ref:`external-interrupts` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f25236c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bit.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bit: - -bit() -===== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Computes the value of an (unsigned) integer with the specified -bit set (``bit(0)`` is 1, ``bit(1)`` is 2, ``bit(2)`` is 4, then 8, -16, 32, etc.). - - -Syntax ------- - -``bit(n)`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -* **n** the bit to set. - - -Value ------ - -The value of an integer with the given bit set. - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple implementation of bit is compatible with Arduino. - - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`arduino-bitread` -- :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` -- :ref:`arduino-bitset` -- :ref:`arduino-bitclear` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 14261a6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitclear.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitclear: - -bitClear() -========== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Clears (writes a 0 to) a bit of a numeric variable. - -Syntax ------- - -``bitClear(x, n)`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -* **x** the numeric variable whose bit to clear - -* **n** which bit to clear, starting at 0 for the least-significant - (rightmost) bit - - -Returns -------- - -None. - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -This implementation is compatible with that of Arduino. - - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`bit `\ () -- :ref:`bitRead `\ () -- :ref:`bitWrite `\ () -- :ref:`bitSet `\ () - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f2cb037..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitread.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitread: - -bitRead() -========= - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Gets the value of a bit in a number. - - -Syntax ------- - -``bitRead(x, n)`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -* **x** the number from which to read the bit. - -* **n** which bit to read, starting at 0 for the least-significant - (rightmost) bit - - -Value ------ - -The value of the bit (0 or 1). - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple implementation of ``bitRead`` is compatible with Arduino. - - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`arduino-bit` -- :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` -- :ref:`arduino-bitset` -- :ref:`arduino-bitclear` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b6964a0..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitset.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitset: - -bitSet() -======== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Sets (writes a 1 to) a bit of a numeric variable. - - -Syntax ------- - -``bitSet(x, n)`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -* **x** the numeric variable whose bit to set - -* **n** which bit to set, starting at 0 for the least-significant - (rightmost) bit - - -Value ------ - -None. - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple implementation of bitSet is compatible with Arduino. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`arduino-bit` -- :ref:`arduino-bitread` -- :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` -- :ref:`arduino-bitclear` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 00c466f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitshift.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,148 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-bitshift: - -Bit shift left (``<<``), bit shift right (``>>``) -================================================= - -Description ------------ - -(Adapted from `The Bit Math Tutorial -`_ in `The Arduino -Playground `_\ ) - - -There are two bit shift operators in C++: the left shift operator -``<<`` and the right shift operator ``>>``. These operators cause the -bits in the left operand to be shifted left or right by the number of -positions specified by the right operand. - -More information on bitwise math can be obtained in the Wikipedia -article on `bitwise operations -`_\ , especially the -section on shifts in `C, C++, and Java -`_\ . - - -Syntax ------- - -``some_int << number_of_bits`` - -``some_int >> number_of_bits`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -* **some_int** An integer value or variable. - -* **number_of_bits** integer whose value is at most ``8 * - sizeof(variable)`` (so ``number_of_bits`` can be at most 32 for - ``int`` values, at most ``8`` for ``char`` values, etc.; the various - integer sizes are summarized :ref:`in this table - `\ ). - - - -Example: --------- - -Here are some examples of bit shifting, with the binary representation of the number in comments:: - - int a = 5; // binary: 101 - int b = a << 3; // binary: 101000, or 40 in decimal - int c = b >> 3; // binary: 101, or back to 5 like we started with - - -When you left shift a value x by y bits (x << y), the leftmost y bits -in x are lost, literally shifted out of existence. We'll do this -example with ``char`` values (which are integers in the range 0-255, -and take up 8 bits of memory):: - - char a = 5; // binary (all 8 bits): 00000101 - char b = a << 7; // binary: 10000000 - the first 1 in 101 was discarded - - -If you are certain that none of the ones in a value are being shifted -into oblivion, a simple way to think of the left-shift operator is -that it multiplies the left operand by 2 raised to the right operand -power (in math notation, ``x << y`` equals x * 2\ :sup:`y`\ , as long -as none of the bits of x get shifted out). For example, to generate -powers of 2, the following expressions can be employed:: - - 1 << 0 == 1 - 1 << 1 == 2 - 1 << 2 == 4 - 1 << 3 == 8 - ... - 1 << 8 == 256 - 1 << 9 == 512 - 1 << 10 == 1024 - ... - -.. _arduino-bitshift-signbit-gotcha: - -When you shift x right by y bits (``x >> y``), and the highest bit in -x is a 1, the behavior depends on the exact data type of x. If x is of -type ``int``, the highest bit is special, and determines whether x is -negative or not; the details are too complicated to explain here, but -they are thoroughly explained in the Wikipedia article on `two's -complement arithmetic -`_\ , which the -system most computers use to store integers. In that case, the sign -bit is copied into lower bits, for esoteric historical reasons:: - - int x = -16; // binary (all 32 bits): 11111111111111111111111111110000 - int y = x >> 3; // binary: 11111111111111111111111111111110 - - - -This behavior, called "sign extension", is often not what you -want. You probably wish zeros to be shifted in from the left. It -turns out that the right shift rules are different for ``unsigned -int`` values, so you can use a type cast to suppress ones being copied -from the left:: - - int x = -16; // binary: 11111111111111111111111111110000 - int y = (unsigned int)x >> 3; // binary: 00011111111111111111111111111110 - - - -If you are careful to avoid sign extension, you can use the -right-shift operator, ``>>``, as a way to divide by powers of 2. For -example:: - - int x = 1000; - int y = x >> 3; // integer division of 1000 by 8, causing y = 125. - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Since it's part of the C++ language, bit shifting on the Maple is -compatible with the Arduino; however, you should keep in mind that the -Maple has bigger integer types (as in, more bits) than the Arduino. - -Since the STM32 is a 32-bit processor, the ``int`` type takes up 32 -bits instead of 16, like on Arduino's 16-bit microcontroller. This -means that you can shift left, like ``x << y``, with bigger values of -``y`` on the Maple before ones in ``x`` start to get shifted out. - -To calculate the number of bits of an integer type on the Maple, -multiply its size in bytes (see :ref:`this table -` for these) by 8, since there are 8 -bits in 1 byte. For example, a ``short`` takes up 2 bytes of memory, -or 2 * 8 = 16 bits. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`arduino-bit` -- :ref:`arduino-bitread` -- :ref:`arduino-bitwrite` -- :ref:`arduino-bitclear` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 92f3fdd..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisecompound.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,231 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-bitwisecompound: - -Compound bitwise and (&=), or (\|=), XOR (^=) -============================================= - -The compound bitwise operators perform their calculations at the -bit level of variables. They are often used to clear and set -specific bits of a variable. - -See the :ref:`bitwise math tutorial ` for more -information on bitwise operators. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-and: - -Compound bitwise AND (&=) -------------------------- - -The compound bitwise AND operator ``&=`` is often used with a variable -and a constant to force particular bits in a variable to be zero. This -is often referred to in programming guides as "clearing" or -"resetting" bits. In a program, writing the line ``x &= y;`` is -equivalent to writing ``x = x & y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` -after the line will be equal to its old value bitwise ANDed with the -value of ``y``:: - - x &= y; // equivalent to x = x & y; - -You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type -``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an -integer variable or any :ref:`integer value -` (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for ``y``. - -Before doing an example of ``&=``, let's first review the Bitwise AND -(``&``) operator:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) = result - -As shown above, bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 0 become 0, while -bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 1 are left unchanged. So, if ``b`` -is a ``byte`` variable, then ``b & B00000000`` equals zero, and ``b & -B11111111`` equals ``b``. - -.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-binconst: - -.. note:: The above uses :ref:`binary constants - `\ . The numbers are still the same - value in other representations, they just might not be as easy to - understand. - - Normally, in C and C++ code, :ref:`hexadecimal - ` or :ref:`octal - ` are used when we're interested in - an integer's bits, rather than its value as a number. - - While hexadecimal and octal literals might be harder to understand - at first, you should really take the time to learn them. They're - part of C, C++, and many other programming languages, while binary - constants are available only for compatibility with Arduino. - - Also, ``B00000000`` is shown for clarity, but zero in any number - format is zero. - -So, to clear (set to zero) bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while -leaving the rest of the variable's bits unchanged, use the compound -bitwise AND operator ``&=`` with the constant ``B11111100`` -(hexadecimal ``0xFC``\ ):: - - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable - 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask - ---------------------- - 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 - ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ - unchanged cleared - - -Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced -with the symbol ``x``\ :: - - x x x x x x x x variable - 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask - ---------------------- - x x x x x x 0 0 - ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ - unchanged cleared - - -So, using a byte variable ``b``\ , if we say:: - - b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA - b &= B11111100; // B11111100 == 0xFC - -then we will have :: - - b == B10101000; // B10101000 == 0xA8 - -.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-or: - -Compound bitwise OR (\|=) -------------------------- - -The compound bitwise OR operator ``|=`` is often used with a variable -and a constant to "set" (set to 1) particular bits in a variable. In -a program, writing the line ``x |= y;`` is equivalent to writing ``x = -x | y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` after the line will be equal to -its old value bitwise ORed with the value of ``y``:: - - x |= y; // equivalent to x = x | y; - -You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type -``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an -integer variable or any integer value (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for -``y``. (This works the same way as :ref:`compound bitwise AND -`\ , ``&=``). - -Before doing an example of ``|=``, let's first review the Bitwise OR -(``|``) operator:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) = result - -Bits that are "bitwise ORed" with 0 are unchanged, while bits that are -"bitwise ORed" with 1 are set to 1. So if ``b`` is a ``byte`` -variable, then ``b | B00000000`` equals ``b``, and ``b & B11111111`` -equals ``B11111111`` (here we've used binary constants; see the -:ref:`note ` above). - -So, to set bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while leaving the rest -of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise OR operator -(``|=``) with the constant ``B00000011`` (hexadecimal ``0x3``):: - - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask - ---------------------- - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 - ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ - unchanged set - -Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced with -the symbol ``x``:: - - x x x x x x x x variable - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask - ---------------------- - x x x x x x 1 1 - ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ - unchanged set - -So, using a byte variable ``b``, if we say:: - - b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA - b |= B00000011; // B00000011 == 0x3 - -then we will have :: - - b == B10101011; // B10101011 == 0xAB - -.. _arduino-bitwisecompound-xor: - -Compound bitwise XOR (\^=) --------------------------- - -The compound bitwise XOR operator ``^=`` is used with a variable and a -constant to "toggle" (change 0 to 1, and 1 to 0) particular bits in a -variable. In a program, writing the line ``x ^= y;`` is equivalent to -writing ``x = x ^ y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` after the line -will be equal to its old value bitwise XORed with the value of ``y``:: - - x ^= y; // equivalent to x = x ^ y; - -You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type -``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an -integer variable or any integer value (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for -``y``. (This works the same way as :ref:`&= -` and :ref:`\|= -`; in fact, these three operators all -work the same in this way). - -Before doing an example of ``^=``, let's first review the Bitwise -XOR operator, ``^``:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 0 (operand1 ^ operand2) = result - -One way to look at bitwise XOR is that each bit in the result is a 1 -if the input bits are different, or 0 if they are the same. Another -way to think about it is that the result bit will be 1 when *exactly* -one (no more, no less) of the input bits is 1; otherwise, it will be -zero. This means that if you XOR a bit with 1, it will change (or -toggle) its value, while if you XOR a bit with 0, it stays the same. - -So, to toggle bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while leaving the -rest of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise XOR operator -``^=`` with the constant ``B00000011`` (hexadecimal ``0x3``\ ; see -:ref:`note ` above):: - - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask - ---------------------- - 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 - ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ - unchanged toggled - -So, using a byte variable ``b``, if we say:: - - b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA - b ^= B00000011; // B00000011 == 0x3 - -then we will have :: - - b == B10101001; // B10101001 == 0xA9 - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`Boolean operations ` (``&&``, ``||``) -- :ref:`Bitwise operators ` (``&``, ``|``, ``^``, ``~``) - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 40c3d7a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwisemath.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,186 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-bitwisemath: - -Bitwise AND (&), OR (\|), XOR (^), NOT (~) -========================================== - -The bitwise operators perform their calculations at the bit level of -variables. They help solve a wide range of common programming -problems. - -Much of the material here is adapted for Maple from an (Arduino) -`tutorial on bitwise math -`_\ . Another great -resource is the Wikipedia article on `bitwise operations -`_\ . - -Below are descriptions and syntax for all of the operators. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -.. _arduino-bitwisemath-and: - -Bitwise AND (&) ---------------- - -The bitwise AND operator in C++ is a single ampersand, ``&``, used -between two other integer expressions. Bitwise AND operates on each -bit position of the surrounding expressions independently, according -to this rule: if both input bits are 1, the resulting output is 1, -otherwise the output is 0. Another way of expressing this is:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) = result - - -On the Maple, the type ``int`` is a 32-bit value, so using ``&`` -between two ``int`` expressions causes 32 simultaneous AND operations -to occur. In a code fragment like:: - - int a = 92; // in binary: 00000000000000000000000001011100 - int b = 101; // in binary: 00000000000000000000000001100101 - int c = a & b; // result: 00000000000000000000000001000100, - // (or 68 in decimal). - - -Each of the 32 bits in ``a`` and ``b`` are processed using bitwise -AND, and all 32 resulting bits are stored in ``c``, resulting in the -value 1000100 in binary, which is 68 in decimal. - - -.. _arduino-bitwisemath-or: - -Bitwise OR (\|) ---------------- - -The bitwise OR operator in C++ is the vertical bar symbol, ``|``. Like -the ``&`` operator, ``|`` operates independently on each bit in its -two surrounding integer expressions, but what it does is -different. The bitwise OR of two bits is 1 if either or both of the -input bits is 1, otherwise it is 0. For example:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) = result - -Here is an example of bitwise OR used in a snippet of C++ code (using -``char``, which takes up 8 bits of memory, instead of ``int``, which -uses 32):: - - char a = 92; // in binary: 01011100 - char b = 101; // in binary: 01100101 - char c = a | b; // result: 01111101, or 125 in decimal. - -.. _arduino-bitwisemath-xor: - -Bitwise XOR (^) ---------------- - -There is a somewhat unusual operator in C++ called bitwise EXCLUSIVE -OR, also known as bitwise XOR. (In English, this is usually pronounced -"zor" or "ex-or"). The bitwise XOR operator is written using the caret -symbol, ``^``. This operator is very similar to the bitwise OR -operator ``|``, except it evaluates to 0 for a given bit position when -both of the input bits for that position are 1:: - - 0 0 1 1 operand1 - 0 1 0 1 operand2 - ---------- - 0 1 1 0 (operand1 ^ operand2) = result - - -Another way to look at bitwise XOR is that each bit in the result -is a 1 if the input bits are different, or 0 if they are the same. - -Here is a simple example:: - - int x = 12; // binary (ignoring extra bits): 1100 - int y = 10; // binary: 1010 - int z = x ^ y; // binary: 0110, or decimal 6 - - - -The ^ operator is often used to toggle (i.e. change from 0 to 1, or 1 -to 0) some of the bits in an integer expression. In a bitwise OR -operation if there is a 1 in the mask bit, that bit is inverted; if -there is a 0, the bit is not inverted and stays the same. Below is a -program to blink digital pin 13 (the LED pin on Maple):: - - // Blink Maple LED pin - - int led_pin = 13; - int toggle = 0; - - // demo for Exclusive OR - void setup(){ - pinMode(led_pin, OUTPUT); - } - - void loop(){ - toggle = toggle ^ 1; - digitalWrite(led_pin, toggle); - delay(100); - } - -.. _arduino-bitwisemath-not: - -Bitwise NOT (~) ---------------- - -The bitwise NOT operator in C++ is the tilde character ``~``. Unlike -``&`` and ``|``, the bitwise NOT operator is applied to a single -operand to its right. Bitwise NOT changes each bit to its opposite: 0 -becomes 1, and 1 becomes 0. For example:: - - 0 1 operand1 - ---- - 1 0 ~operand1 = result - -Another example:: - - char a = 103; // binary: 01100111 - char b = ~a; // binary: 10011000 = -104 - -You might be surprised to see a negative number like -104 as the -result of this operation. This is because the highest bit in an int -variable is the so-called "sign bit". If the highest bit is 1, the -number is interpreted as negative. This encoding of positive and -negative numbers is referred to as *two's complement*. For more -information, see the Wikipedia article on `two's -complement. `_ - -As an aside, it is interesting to note that (under two's complement -arithmetic) for any integer ``x``, ``~x`` is the same as ``-x-1``. - -At times, the sign bit in a signed integer expression can cause -some unwanted surprises. - - -Uses ----- - -One of the most common uses of bitwise operations is to select or -manipulate a particular bit (or bits) from an integer value, often -called `bit masking -`_\ . See the -linked Wikipedia article for more information and examples. - -If you really want to see bit-twiddling techniques in their full -glory, you could do much worse than to get yourself a copy of -`Hacker's Delight `_\ . - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`Boolean operations ` (``&&``, ``||``) -- :ref:`Compound bitwise operations ` (``&=``, - ``|=``, ``^=``). - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0e57cc4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bitwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-bitwrite: - -bitWrite(x, n, b) -================= - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Writes a bit of a numeric variable. - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: the numeric variable whose bit to write. - -**n**: which bit of the number to write, starting at 0 for the -least-significant (rightmost) bit. - -**b**: the value to write to the bit (0 or 1). - -Returns -------- - -Nothing. - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Maple's version of ``bitWrite()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`bit() ` -- :ref:`bitRead() ` -- :ref:`bitSet() ` -- :ref:`bitClear() ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst b/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1d834d3..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/boolean.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,91 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-boolean: - -Boolean Operators -================= - -These can be used inside the condition of an :ref:`if ` -statement. Evaluate to :ref:`true ` or -:ref:`false `. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -.. _arduino-boolean-and: - -&& (logical and) ----------------- - -True only if both operands are true. For example:: - - if (digitalRead(2) == HIGH && digitalRead(3) == HIGH) { // read two switches - // ... - } - -is true only if both inputs are high. Another example:: - - if (a >= 10 && a <= 20){} // true if a is between 10 and 20 - -**Be careful** not to say ``10 <= a <= 20``! This won't work the way -you want. You have to separately test whether ``a`` is at least 10 -using ``a >= 10``, then test whether ``a`` is at most 20 using ``a <= -20``, then combine the results using ``&&``. - - -.. _arduino-boolean-or: - -\|\| (logical or) ------------------ - -True if either operand is true. For example:: - - if (x > 0 || y > 0) { - // ... - } - -is true if either ``x`` or ``y`` is greater than 0. - -.. _arduino-boolean-not: - -! (logical not) ---------------- - -True if the operand is false. For example:: - - if (!x) { - // ... - } - -is true if ``x`` is false (i.e. if ``x`` is zero). - -Some Advice ------------ - -.. warning:: - - Make sure you don't mistake the boolean AND operator ``&&`` - (double ampersand) for the :ref:`bitwise AND operator - ` ``&`` (single ampersand). They are - entirely different beasts. - - Similarly, do not confuse the boolean OR operator ``||`` (double - pipe) with the :ref:`bitwise OR operator ` - ``|`` (single pipe). - - The :ref:`bitwise NOT operator ` ``~`` - (tilde) looks much different than the boolean not operator ``!`` - (exclamation point, or "bang", as some programmers say), but you - still have to be sure which one you want. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`Bitwise operators ` (``&``, ``|``, ``^``, ``~``) -- :ref:`Compound bitwise operators ` (``&=``, - ``|=``, ``^=``). -- :ref:`if statement ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst b/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst deleted file mode 100644 index a5f2c51..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/booleanvariables.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-booleanvariables: - -Booleans -======== - -A **boolean** holds one of two values, :ref:`true -` or :ref:`false `. -On a Maple, each boolean variable occupies one byte of memory, and has -type ``bool``. - -.. warning:: - - On an Arduino, the type ``boolean`` is also provided. While the - Maple also has this type for compatibility, **its use is strongly - discouraged**. The ``bool`` type is a standard part of C++, while - ``boolean`` is a non-standard extension that serves no purpose. - -Example -------- - -:: - - int ledPin = 13; // LED on pin 13 - int switchPin = 12; // momentary switch on 12, other side connected to ground - - // running is a boolean variable: - bool running = false; - - void setup() { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(switchPin, INPUT); - digitalWrite(switchPin, HIGH); // turn on pullup resistor - } - - void loop() { - if (digitalRead(switchPin) == LOW) { - // switch is pressed - pullup keeps pin high normally - delay(100); // delay to debounce switch - running = !running; // toggle running variable - digitalWrite(ledPin, running) // indicate via LED - } - } - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`Boolean constants ` -- :ref:`Boolean operators ` -- :ref:`Variables ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst b/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 04518b3..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/braces.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,97 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-braces: - -Curly Braces ({}) -================= - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Introduction ------------- - -Curly braces (also referred to as just "braces" or as "curly -brackets") are a major part of the C and C++ programming -languages. They are used in several different constructs, outlined -below, and this can sometimes be confusing for beginners. - -An opening curly brace, ``{`` must always be followed by a closing -curly brace ``}``. This is a condition that is often referred to as -the braces being *balanced*. The Maple IDE (integrated development -environment) includes a convenient feature to check the balance of -curly braces. Just select a brace, or even click the insertion point -immediately following a brace, and its companion will be highlighted\ -[#fbug]_\ . - -Beginning programmers, and programmers coming to C++ from languages -without braces, often find using them confusing or daunting. - -Because the use of the curly brace is so varied, it is good -programming practice to type the closing brace immediately after -typing the opening brace when inserting a construct which requires -curly braces. Then insert some blank lines between your braces and -begin inserting statements. Your braces, and your attitude, will never -become unbalanced. - -Unbalanced braces can often lead to cryptic, impenetrable compiler -errors that can sometimes be hard to track down in a large program. -Because of their varied usages, braces are also incredibly important -to the syntax of a program and moving a brace one or two lines will -usually dramatically affect the meaning of a program. - -The main uses of curly braces ------------------------------ - -**Functions**:: - - // a function body needs braces around it - void myfunction(datatype argument) { - // ... function body goes in here ... - } - -**Loops** (see the :ref:`while `\ , :ref:`for -`\ , and :ref:`do/while ` loop reference -pages for more information):: - - // you should put braces around the body of a loop: - - while (boolean expression) { - // code inside the loop goes here - } - - for (initialisation; termination condition; incrementing expr) { - // code inside the loop goes here - } - - do { - // code inside the loop goes here - } while (boolean expression); - - -**Conditional statements** (see the :ref:`if statement ` -reference page for more information):: - - // you should put braces around the body of an "if", "else if", - // or "else": - - if (boolean expression) { - // code inside the "if" - } - else if (boolean expression) { - // code inside the "else if" - } - else { - // code inside the "else" - } - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. TODO remove this once IDE 0.1.0 released - -.. [#fbug] At present this feature is slightly buggy as the IDE will - often find (incorrectly) a brace in text that has been commented - out. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst b/docs/source/arduino/break.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3e1e9ee..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/break.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-break: - -break -===== - -``break`` is used to exit from a :ref:`while `\ , -:ref:`for `\ , or :ref:`do/while ` loop, -bypassing the normal loop condition. It is also used to exit from a -:ref:`switch ` statement. - - -Example -------- - -:: - - for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) - { - digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); - sens = analogRead(sensorPin); - if (sens > threshold){ // bail out on sensor detect - x = 0; - // this line of code means that we'll immediately exit - // from the "for" loop: - break; - } - delay(50); - } - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 8478d0b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/byte.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-byte: - -byte -==== - -The ``byte`` type stores a 1-byte (8-bit) unsigned integer number, -from 0 to 255. - -.. warning:: - - The ``byte`` type is provided for compatibility with Arduino. - However, it is a non-standard extension. The standard C++ type for - storing an 8-bit unsigned integer is ``unsigned char``; we - recommend using that instead. (Your code will still work on an - Arduino). - - -Example -------- - -:: - - byte b = 134; - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`byte() ` (casting a value to a byte) -- :ref:`Variables ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 348c9fb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/bytecast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,53 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-bytecast: - -byte() (cast) -============= - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the :ref:`byte ` data type. - -.. note:: - - Casting to the byte type is provided for compatibility with - Arduino. However, the recommended Maple type for storing an 8-bit - unsigned integer is ``uint8``. (C and C++ programmers: ``stdint.h`` - is also available). - - In order to cast a variable ``x`` to a ``uint8``, the - following syntax can be used:: - - uint8(x); - -Syntax ------- - -``byte(x)`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: a value of any integer type - - -Returns -------- - -The value, converted to a ``byte``. Note, however, that if the value -is larger than the maximum value you can store in a byte (255), then -the results might be strange and unexpected. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`arduino-byte` - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt b/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e100140..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/cc-attribution.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -.. Included in all this directory's files in order to satisfy the -.. Arduino CC Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License - -.. admonition:: License and Attribution - - This documentation page was adapted from the `Arduino Reference - Documentation `_\ , which - is released under a `Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 - License `_. diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/char.rst b/docs/source/arduino/char.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 72d5ef2..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/char.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-char: - -char -==== - -Description ------------ - -The ``char`` type stores a 1-byte character value (or integer with -value from -128 to 127). Character literals are written in single -quotes, like this: ``'A'`` (for multiple characters - strings - use -double quotes: ``"ABC"``). - - -Just like everything else on a computer, characters are stored as -numbers. You can see the specific encoding in the `ASCII chart -`_\ -. This means that it is possible to do arithmetic on characters, in -which the ASCII value of the character is used (e.g. ``'A' + 1`` has the -decimal value 66, since the ASCII value of the capital letter A in -decimal is 65). See the :ref:`Serial.println() -` documentation for more information about how -characters are converted into numbers. - -The ``char`` datatype is a signed type, meaning that it encodes -numbers from -128 to 127. For an unsigned type, which stores values -from 0 to 255, just use the type ``unsigned char`` (two words). - - -Example -------- - -:: - - // the following two lines are equivalent: - char c = 'A'; - char c = 65; - - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`arduino-int` -- :ref:`arduino-array` (a string is just an array of ``char``\ s) -- :ref:`Serial.println() ` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 91a0f8f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/charcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-charcast: - -char() (cast) -============= - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the :ref:`char ` data type. - -Syntax ------- - -``char(x)`` - - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: a value of any type - - -Returns -------- - -The value, converted to a ``char``. Note, however, that if the value -is outside the range of a ``char`` (-128 to 127), then the results -might be strange and unexpected. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`char ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b50aa0f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comments.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,67 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-comments: - -Comments -======== - -Comments are lines in the program that are used to inform yourself or -others about the way the program works. They are ignored by the -compiler, and not exported to the processor, so they don't take up any -space in RAM or Flash. - -One use for comments is to help you understand (or remember) how your -program works, or to inform others how your program works. There are -two different ways of making comments. - -.. _arduino-comments-singleline: - -**Single line comment**: Anything following two slashes, ``//``, until -the end of the line, is a comment:: - - x = 5; // the rest of this line is a comment - -.. _arduino-comments-multiline: - -**Multi-line comment**: Anything in between a pair of ``/*`` and ``*/`` -is a comment:: - - /* <-- a slash-star begins a multi-line comment - - all of this in the multi-line comment - you can use it to comment - out whole blocks of code - - if (gwb == 0){ // single line comment is OK inside a multi-line comment - x = 3; - } - - // don't forget the "closing" star-slash - they have to be balanced: - */ - -Note that it's okay to use single-line comments within a multi-line -comment, but you can't use multi-line comments within a multi-line -comment. Here's an example:: - - /* ok, i started a multi-line comment - - x = 3; /* this next star-slash ENDS the multi-line comment: */ - - x = 4; // this line is outside of the multi-line comment - - // next line is also outside of the comment, and causes a compile error: - */ - -Programming Tip ---------------- - -When experimenting with code, "commenting out" parts of your program -is a convenient way to remove lines that may be buggy. This leaves -the lines in the code, but turns them into comments, so the compiler -just ignores them. This can be especially useful when trying to locate -a problem, or when a program refuses to compile and the compiler error -is cryptic or unhelpful. - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst b/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e5e92d7..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/comparison.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,87 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-comparison: - -Comparison Operators -==================== - -The comparison operators ``==``, ``!=``, ``<``, ``>``, ``<=``, and -``>=`` are used to compare two numbers. They are :ref:`true -` when the comparison is true, and :ref:`false -` otherwise. They are based on the symbols -=, ≠, <, >, ≤, and ≥ from mathematics. - -Here are some examples, with their meaning in comments:: - - // "eq" is true when x is equal to y - bool eq = (x == y); - - // "neq" is true when x is different than y - bool neq = (x != y); - - // "lt" is true when x is less than, but NOT equal to, y - bool lt = (x < y); - - // "gt" is true when x is greater than, but NOT equal to, y - bool gt = (x > y); - - // "lte" is true when x is less than or equal to y - bool lte = (x <= y); - - // "gte" is true when x is greater than or equal to y - bool gte = (x >= y); - -The parentheses are optional; they are present only for clarity. For -example, the following two lines are the same:: - - bool eq = x == y; - - bool eq = (x == y); - -Uses ----- - -Comparison operators, along with :ref:`boolean operators -`, are useful inside the conditionals of :ref:`if -` statements. Here's one example:: - - if (x < 50) { - // only execute these lines if x is less than 50 - SerialUSB.println("delaying:"); - SerialUSB.println(x); - delay(x); - } - -.. warning:: - Beware of accidentally using the single equal sign (``=``) when you - meant to test if two numbers are equal (``==``). This is a common - mistake inside of ``if`` statement conditionals, e.g.:: - - // DON'T MAKE THIS MISTAKE - if (x = 10) { - // body - } - - The single equal sign is the assignment operator, and sets x to 10 - (puts the value 10 into the variable x). Instead use the double equal - sign (e.g. ``if (x == 10)``), which is the comparison operator, and - tests *whether* x is equal to 10 or not. The latter statement is only - true if x equals 10, but the former statement will always be true. - - This is because C evaluates the statement ``if (x=10)`` as follows: 10 - is assigned to x (remember that the single equal sign is the - :ref:`assignment operator `), so x now - contains 10. Then the 'if' conditional evaluates 10, which evaluates - to :ref:`true `, since any non-zero number - evaluates to ``true``. - - Consequently, the conditional of an ``if`` statement like ``if (x = - 10) {...}`` will always evaluate to ``true``, and the variable x - will be set to 10, which is probably not what you meant. - - (This sometimes has uses, though, so just because an assignment - appears within a conditional doesn't mean it's automatically wrong. - Be careful to know what you mean.) - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst b/docs/source/arduino/const.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b008144..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/const.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-const: - -const Keyword -============= - -The ``const`` keyword stands for "constant". It is a variable -*qualifier* that modifies the behavior of the variable, making a -variable "*read-only*". This means that the variable can be used just -as any other variable of its type, but its value cannot be -changed. You will get a compiler error if you try to assign a value to -a ``const`` variable. - -Constants defined with the ``const`` keyword obey the same rules of -:ref:`variable scoping ` that govern other -variables. This, and the pitfalls of using :ref:`#define -`, often makes using the ``const`` keyword a superior -method for defining constants than ``#define``. - -Example -------- - -:: - - // this defines a variable called "pi", which cannot be changed: - const float pi = 3.14; - float x; - - // .... - - x = pi * 2; // it's fine to find the value of a const variable - - pi = 7; // illegal - you can't write to (modify) a constant - - -**#define** or **const** ------------------------- - -You can use either ``const`` or ``#define`` for creating numeric or -string constants. For :ref:`arrays `\ , you will need -to use ``const``. In general, ``const`` is preferred over ``#define`` -for defining constants. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`#define ` -- :ref:`volatile ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e841c9b..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constants.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,302 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-constants: - -constants -========= - -Constants are predefined variables in the Arduino language. They -are used to make the programs easier to read. We classify constants -in groups. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -.. _arduino-constants-bool: - -Boolean Constants ------------------ - -There are two constants used to represent truth and falsity in the -Arduino language: **true**, and **false**. - -.. _arduino-constants-false: - -false -^^^^^ - -false is the easier of the two to define. false is defined as 0 -(zero). - -.. _arduino-constants-true: - -true -^^^^ - -true is often said to be defined as 1, which is correct, but true -has a wider definition. Any integer which is *non-zero* is TRUE, in -a Boolean sense. So -1, 2 and -200 are all defined as true, too, in -a Boolean sense. - - -Note that the *true* and *false* constants are typed in lowercase -unlike HIGH, LOW, INPUT, & OUTPUT. - - -Defining Pin Levels, HIGH and LOW ---------------------------------- - -When reading or writing to a digital pin there are only two -possible values a pin can take/be-set-to: **HIGH** and **LOW**. - -.. _arduino-constants-high: - -**HIGH** - - - -The meaning of HIGH (in reference to a pin) is somewhat different -depending on whether a pin is set to an INPUT or OUTPUT. When a pin -is configured as an INPUT with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, -the microcontroller will report HIGH if a voltage of 3 volts or -more is present at the pin. - - - -A pin may also be configured as an INPUT with pinMode, and -subsequently made HIGH with digitalWrite, this will set the -internal 20K pullup resistors, which will *steer* the input pin to -a HIGH reading unless it is pulled LOW by external circuitry. - - - -When a pin is configured to OUTPUT with pinMode, and set to HIGH -with digitalWrite, the pin is at 5 volts. In this state it can -*source* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected through a -series resistor to ground, or to another pin configured as an -output, and set to LOW. - -.. _arduino-constants-low: - -**LOW** - - - -The meaning of LOW also has a different meaning depending on -whether a pin is set to INPUT or OUTPUT. When a pin is configured -as an INPUT with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, the -microcontroller will report LOW if a voltage of 2 volts or less is -present at the pin. - - - -When a pin is configured to OUTPUT with pinMode, and set to LOW -with digitalWrite, the pin is at 0 volts. In this state it can -*sink* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected through a -series resistor to, +5 volts, or to another pin configured as an -output, and set to HIGH. - - - -Defining Digital Pins, INPUT and OUTPUT ---------------------------------------- - -Digital pins can be used either as **INPUT** or **OUTPUT**. -Changing a pin from INPUT TO OUTPUT with pinMode() drastically -changes the electrical behavior of the pin. - -.. _arduino-constants-input: - -Pins Configured as Inputs -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Arduino (Atmega) pins configured as **INPUT** with pinMode() are -said to be in a high-impedance state. One way of explaining this is -that pins configured as INPUT make extremely small demands on the -circuit that they are sampling, say equivalent to a series resistor -of 100 Megohms in front of the pin. This makes them useful for -reading a sensor, but not powering an LED. - -.. _arduino-constants-output: - -Pins Configured as Outputs -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Pins configured as **OUTPUT** with pinMode() are said to be in a -low-impedance state. This means that they can provide a substantial -amount of current to other circuits. Atmega pins can source -(provide positive current) or sink (provide negative current) up to -40 mA (milliamps) of current to other devices/circuits. This makes -them useful for powering LED's but useless for reading sensors. -Pins configured as outputs can also be damaged or destroyed if -short circuited to either ground or 5 volt power rails. The amount -of current provided by an Atmega pin is also not enough to power -most relays or motors, and some interface circuitry will be -required. - -.. _arduino-constants-fp: - -Floating-Point Constants ------------------------- - -Similar to integer constants, floating point constants are used to -make code more readable. Floating point constants are swapped at -compile time for the value to which the expression evaluates. - -.. TODO explain that floating point literals are doubles - -.. _arduino-constants-fp-f: - -.. TODO f modifiers - -Examples: - -``n = .005;`` - -Floating point constants can also be expressed in a variety of -scientific notation. 'E' and 'e' are both accepted as valid -exponent indicators. - -:: - - - floating-point evaluates to: also evaluates to: - constant - - 10.0 10 - 2.34E5 2.34 * 10^5 234000 - 67e-12 67.0 * 10^-12 .000000000067 - -.. _arduino-constants-integers: - -Integer Constants ------------------ - -Integer constants are numbers used directly in a sketch, like -``123``. By default, these numbers are treated as -`int `_'s but you can change -this with the U and L modifiers (see below). - - - -Normally, integer constants are treated as base 10 (decimal) -integers, but special notation (formatters) may be used to enter -numbers in other bases. - - - -:: - - Base Example Formatter Comment - - 10 (decimal) 123 none - - 2 (binary) B1111011 leading 'B' only works with 8 bit values (0 to 255) - characters 0-1 valid - - 8 (octal) 0173 leading "0" characters 0-7 valid - - 16 (hexadecimal) 0x7B leading "0x" characters 0-9, A-F, a-f valid - -.. _arduino-constants-integers-dec: - -**Decimal** is base 10. This is the common-sense math with which -you are acquainted. Constants without other prefixes are assumed to -be in decimal format. - - - -Example: -:: - - 101 // same as 101 decimal ((1 * 10^2) + (0 * 10^1) + 1) - -.. _arduino-constants-integers-bin: - -**Binary** is base two. Only characters 0 and 1 are valid. - - - -Example: -:: - - B101 // same as 5 decimal ((1 * 2^2) + (0 * 2^1) + 1) - -The binary formatter only works on bytes (8 bits) between 0 (B0) -and 255 (B11111111). If it is convenient to input an int (16 bits) -in binary form you can do it a two-step procedure such as: - - - -:: - - myInt = (B11001100 * 256) + B10101010; // B11001100 is the high byte - -.. _arduino-constants-integers-oct: - -**Octal** is base eight. Only characters 0 through 7 are valid. Octal -values are indicated by the prefix "0". - -Example: - -:: - - 0101 // same as 65 decimal ((1 * 8^2) + (0 * 8^1) + 1) - -Warning -It is possible to generate a hard-to-find bug by (unintentionally) -including a leading zero before a constant and having the compiler -unintentionally interpret your constant as octal. - -.. _arduino-constants-integers-hex: - -**Hexadecimal (or hex)** is base sixteen. Valid characters are 0 -through 9 and letters A through F; A has the value 10, B is 11, up -to F, which is 15. Hex values are indicated by the prefix "0x". -Note that A-F may be syted in upper or lower case (a-f). - - - -Example: - -:: - - 0x101 // same as 257 decimal ((1 * 16^2) + (0 * 16^1) + 1) - -.. _arduino-constants-integers-u-l: - -U & L formatters -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -By default, an integer constant is treated as an -`int `_ with the attendant -limitations in values. To specify an integer constant with another -data type, follow it with: - - - - -- a 'u' or 'U' to force the constant into an unsigned data format. - Example: ``33u`` -- a 'l' or 'L' to force the constant into a long data format. - Example: ``100000L`` -- a 'ul' or 'UL' to force the constant into an unsigned long - constant. Example: ``32767ul`` - - - - -See also --------- - - -- `pinMode() `_ -- `Integer Constants `_ -- `boolean variables `_ -- `#define `_ -- `byte `_ -- `int `_ -- `unsigned int `_ -- `long `_ -- `unsigned long `_ - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst b/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst deleted file mode 100644 index a43b8f8..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/constrain.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,65 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-constrain: - -constrain(x, a, b) -================== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Constrains a number to be within a range. - - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: the number to constrain - -**a**: the lower end of the range - -**b**: the upper end of the range - -Returns -------- - -**x**: if **x** is between **a** and **b** - -**a**: if **x** is less than **a** - -**b**: if **x** is greater than **b** - -Example -------- - -:: - - // limits range of sensor values to between 10 and 150: - sensVal = constrain(sensVal, 10, 150); - - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way ``constrain()`` is implemented, avoid using other -functions or causing side effects inside the parentheses, as it may -lead to incorrect results:: - - constrain(x,a++,b); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - constrain(x,a,b); // use this instead- - a++; // keep other math outside constrain() - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Maple's implementation of ``constrain()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`min() ` -- :ref:`max() ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst b/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst deleted file mode 100644 index bda1c95..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/continue.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-continue: - -========== - continue -========== - -The ``continue`` keyword skips the rest of the current iteration of a -:ref:`while `\ , :ref:`for `\ , or -:ref:`do/while ` loop. It continues by checking the -conditional expression of the loop, and proceeding with any subsequent -iterations. - - -Example -======= - -:: - - - for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) { - if (x > 40 && x < 120) { // create jump in values - continue; // skips the next two lines and goes to the - // beginning of the loop, with the next value of x - } - - digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); - delay(50); - } - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst b/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e1188d0..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/cos.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-cos: - -cos(rad) -======== - -Calculate the cosine of an angle (in radians). - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: cos - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple ``cos()`` implementation is compatible with Arduino. - -Note that the Maple implementation comes from `newlib -`_\ , while Arduino's is that of -`avr-libc `_\ . - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`sin() ` -- :ref:`tan() ` -- :ref:`float ` -- :ref:`double ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/define.rst b/docs/source/arduino/define.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 6a403d4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/define.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-define: - -#define -======= - -``#define`` is a useful C and C++ feature that allows the programmer -to give a name to a constant value before the program is compiled. -The compiler will replace references to these constants with the -defined value at compile time. - -This can have some unwanted side effects. In general, the :ref:`const -` keyword is preferred for defining constants. - - -Syntax ------- - -The following line would define the name ``MY_CONSTANT`` to have value -``value``:: - - #define MY_CONSTANT value - -Note that the ``#`` is necessary. It is usually good style for the -name to be capitalized, although this is not required. - -There is no semicolon after the #define statement. If you include one, -the compiler will likely throw cryptic errors in unrelated places. -That is, **don't do this**:: - - // DON'T DO THIS! THE SEMICOLON SHOULDN'T BE THERE! - #define NAME value; - -Similarly, including an equal sign after the ``#define`` line will -also generate a cryptic compiler error further down the page. That -is, **don't do this, either**:: - - // DON'T DO THIS, EITHER! THE EQUALS SIGN SHOULDN'T BE THERE! - #define NAME = value - -Example -------- - -:: - - #define LED_PIN 13 - // The compiler will replace any mention of LED_PIN with - // the value 3 at compile time. - -See Also --------- -- :ref:`const ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 64d78aa..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delay.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-delay: - -delay() -======= - -Pauses the program for at least a given number of milliseconds. (There -are 1000 milliseconds in a second.) - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: delay - - -Discussion ----------- - -While it is easy to create a blinking LED with the ``delay()`` -function, and many sketches use short delays for such tasks as switch -debouncing, the use of ``delay()`` in a sketch has significant -drawbacks. No other reading of sensors, mathematical calculations, or -pin manipulation can go on during the delay function, so in effect, it -brings most other activity to a halt. For alternative approaches to -controlling timing see the :ref:`millis() ` function -and the "Blink Without Delay" sketch cited :ref:`below -`\ . More knowledgeable programmers usually -avoid the use of ``delay()`` for timing of events longer than tens of -milliseconds, unless the sketch is very simple. - -Certain things *do* go on while the ``delay()`` function is -controlling the STM32 chip, however, because the delay function does -not disable interrupts. Serial communication that appears at the RX -pin is recorded, PWM (see :ref:`pwmWrite() `\ ) -values and pin states are maintained, and :ref:`interrupts -` will work as they should. - - -Example -------- - -:: - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to pin 13 - - void setup() { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on - delay(1000); // waits for a second - digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off - delay(1000); // waits for a second - } - -.. _arduino-delay-seealso: - -See also --------- - - -- :ref:`millis() ` -- :ref:`micros() ` -- :ref:`delayMicroseconds() ` -- (Arduino) `Blink Without Delay `_ example (works unmodified on Maple) - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst b/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d1016f1..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/delaymicroseconds.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,65 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-delaymicroseconds: - -delayMicroseconds() -=================== - -Pauses the program for the amount of time (in microseconds) -specified as parameter. There are a thousand microseconds in a -millisecond, and a million microseconds in a second. - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: delayMicroseconds - - -Example -------- - -The following example configures pin number 8 to work as an output -pin, and sends a train of pulses with a period of roughly 100 -microseconds:: - - int outPin = 8; - - void setup() { - pinMode(outPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() { - digitalWrite(outPin, HIGH); // sets the pin on - delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds - digitalWrite(outPin, LOW); // sets the pin off - delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds - } - - -Caveats and Known Issues ------------------------- - -The longest time ``delayMicroseconds()`` can delay is bounded by its -argument type and the STM32 clock rate to be (2^32 - 1) / 12 -microseconds, or less than 6 minutes. For longer pauses, use of -:ref:`arduino-delay` is possible. - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -While we have made every effort we could to ensure that the timing of -delayMicroseconds is as accurate as possible, we cannot guarantee it -will behave as the Arduino implementation down to the microsecond, -especially for smaller values of ``us``. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`millis ` -- :ref:`micros ` -- :ref:`delay ` - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 6e037e6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/detachinterrupt.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-detachinterrupt: - -detachInterrupt() -================= - -Used to disable an interrupt specified with -:ref:`arduino-attachinterrupt`\ . - - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: detachInterrupt - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -There is one important difference between the Maple version of -detachInterrupt and the Arduino version. On the Maple, the argument -to ``detachInterrupt()`` is the *pin* on which the interrupt is -attached, while on the Arduino, the argument is the *interrupt -number*, which is different from the pin the interrupt is enabled on. - -If you're calling this function, you've already called -:ref:`arduino-attachinterrupt` to set up your interrupt handler, so -just call ``detachInterrupt()`` with the same pin argument you gave to -``attachInterrupt()``. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`attachInterrupt() ` - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst b/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst deleted file mode 100644 index daf04f8..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/digitalread.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,61 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-digitalread: - -digitalRead() -============= - -Description ------------ - -Reads the value from a specified digital pin, either :ref:`HIGH -` or :ref:`LOW `. - - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: digitalRead - - -Example -------- - -The following example turns the LED on when the button is pressed:: - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to Maple pin 13 - int buttonPin = 38; // BUT connected to Maple pin 38 - - void setup() { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); - } - - void loop() { - int val = digitalRead(buttonPin); // reads the input pin - digitalWrite(ledPin, val); - } - -Note ----- - -If the pin isn't connected to anything, ``digitalRead()`` can return -either HIGH or LOW (and this can change in a way that seems random). - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple version of ``digitalRead()`` is compatible with Arduino. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`pinMode ` -- :ref:`digitalWrite ` - - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst b/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b80d5c6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/digitalwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,116 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-digitalwrite: - -digitalWrite() -============== - -Description ------------ - -Write a `HIGH `_ or a -`LOW `_ value to a -digital pin. - - - -If the pin has been configured as an OUTPUT with -`pinMode `_\ (), its voltage -will be set to the corresponding value: 5V (or 3.3V on 3.3V boards) -for HIGH, 0V (ground) for LOW. - - - -If the pin is configured as an INPUT, writing a HIGH value with -digitalWrite() will enable an internal 20K pullup resistor (see the -`tutorial on digital pins `_). -Writing LOW will disable the pullup. The pullup resistor is enough -to light an LED dimly, so if LEDs appear to work, but very dimly, -this is a likely cause. The remedy is to set the pin to an output -with the pinMode() function. - - - -**NOTE:** Digital pin 13 is harder to use as a digital input than -the other digital pins because it has an LED and resistor attached -to it that's soldered to the board on most boards. If you enable -its internal 20k pull-up resistor, it will hang at around 1.7 V -instead of the expected 5V because the onboard LED and series -resistor pull the voltage level down, meaning it always returns -LOW. If you must use pin 13 as a digital input, use an external -pull down resistor. - - - -Syntax ------- - -digitalWrite(pin, value) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin number - - - -value: `HIGH `_ or -`LOW `_ - - - -Returns -------- - -none - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on - delay(1000); // waits for a second - digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off - delay(1000); // waits for a second - } - - - -Sets pin 13 to HIGH, makes a one-second-long delay, and sets the -pin back to LOW. - - - -Note ----- - -The analog input pins can be used as digital pins, referred to as -A0, A1, etc. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `pinMode `_\ () -- `digitalRead `_\ () -- `Tutorial: Digital Pins `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/double.rst b/docs/source/arduino/double.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d1c1076..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/double.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-double: - -double -====== - -Description ------------ - -Double precision floating point number. Occupies 8 bytes. - -Floating point numbers are not exact, and may yield strange results -when compared. For example ``6.0 / 3.0`` may not equal ``2.0``. You -should instead check that the absolute value of the difference between -the numbers is less than some small number. - -Floating point math is also much slower than integer math in -performing calculations, so should be avoided if, for example, a loop -has to run at top speed for a critical timing function. Programmers -often go to some lengths to convert floating point calculations to -integer math to increase speed. - -For more information about floating point math, see the `Wikipedia -article `_\ . - -Floating-point numbers represent numbers with "decimal point", unlike -integral types, which always represent whole numbers. Floating-point -numbers are often used to approximate analog and continuous values -because they have greater resolution than integers. - -The double implementation on the Maple uses twice the number of bytes -as a :ref:`float `, with the corresponding gains in -precision. - -Tip ---- - -Users who borrow code from other sources that includes double -variables may wish to examine the code to see if the implied -precision is different from that actually achieved on the Maple. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`float ` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/doublecast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/doublecast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9aaf12c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/doublecast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-doublecast: - -double() (cast) -=============== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the :ref:`double ` floating point -data type. Here is an example:: - - int x = 2; - double d = double(x); // d now holds 2.0, a double value - -The value ``x`` can be of any type. However, if ``x`` is not a number -(like an ``int`` or ``long``), you will get strange results. - -See the :ref:`double ` reference for details about the -precision and limitations of ``double`` values on the Maple. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`double ` -- :ref:`float ` -- :ref:`float() ` - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 7dffe50..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/dowhile.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-dowhile: - -do/while Loop -============= - -A ``do`` loop works in the same manner as a :ref:`while -` loop, with the exception that the condition is tested -at the end of the loop, so the ``do`` loop will *always* run at least -once. - -This is the basic syntax:: - - do { - // statement block - } while (test condition); - -Example:: - - do { - delay(50); // wait for sensors to stabilize - x = readSensors(); // check the sensors - } while (x < 100); - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/else.rst b/docs/source/arduino/else.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9345e8a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/else.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,54 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-else: - -if/else -======= - -``if``/\ ``else`` allows greater control over the flow of code than -the basic :ref:`if ` statement, by allowing multiple tests -to be grouped together. For example, an :ref:`analog input -` could be tested, with one action taken if the -input was less than 500, and another action taken if the input was 500 -or greater. The code would look like this:: - - if (pinFiveInput < 500) { - // action A - } else { - // action B - } - -``else`` can precede another ``if`` test, so that multiple, mutually -exclusive tests can be run at the same time. - -Each test will proceed to the next one until a true test is -encountered. When a true test is found, its associated block of code -is run, and the program then skips to the line following the entire -if/else construction. If no test proves to be true, the default -``else`` block is executed, if one is present, and sets the default -behavior. - - -Note that an ``else if`` block may be used with or without a -terminating ``else`` block, and vice-versa. An unlimited number of -such ``else if`` branches is allowed. Here is a code example:: - - if (pinFiveInput < 500) { - // do Thing A - } else if (pinFiveInput >= 1000) { - // do Thing B - } else { - // do Thing C - } - -Another way to express branching, mutually exclusive tests, is with a -:ref:`switch/case ` statement. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`if ` -- :ref:`switch/case ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/float.rst b/docs/source/arduino/float.rst deleted file mode 100644 index aa3bd99..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/float.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,58 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-float: - -float -===== - -.. TODO move all the useful examples over to arduino/double.rst. We -.. want to discourage using floats, since most of the common cmath -.. functions are only declared with doubles. - -Description ------------ - -Single-precision floating point number. ``float`` values can be as -large as 3.4028235E+38 and as low as -3.4028235E+38. They are stored -as 32 bits (4 bytes) of information. - -``float``\ s have only 6-7 decimal digits of precision. That means the total -number of digits, not the number to the right of the decimal point. -You can get more precision by using a :ref:`double ` -(which has a precision of about 16 decimal digits). - -The following example declares a ``float`` value named ``myfloat``:: - - float myfloat; - -This example declares a ``float`` value named ``sensorCalibrate``, -with value 1.117:: - - float sensorCalibrate = 1.117; - -The general syntax for declaring a float named ``var`` with value -``val`` is:: - - float var = val; - -Here is a more extended example involving a :ref:`float cast -`:: - - int x; - int y; - float z; - - x = 1; - y = x / 2; // y now contains 0, ints can't hold fractions - z = float(x) / 2; // z now contains .5 - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`int ` -- :ref:`double ` -- :ref:`Variables ` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index a8d1113..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/floatcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-floatcast: - -float() (cast) -============== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the :ref:`float ` data type. Here -is an example (see the :ref:`constants reference -` for an explanation of the "2.0f"):: - - int x = 2; - float f = float(x); // f now holds 2.0f, a float value - -The value ``x`` can be of any type. However, if ``x`` is not a number -(like an ``int``), you will get strange results. - -See the :ref:`float ` reference for details about the -precision and limitations of ``float`` values on the Maple. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`float ` -- :ref:`double ` -- :ref:`double() ` - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/for.rst b/docs/source/arduino/for.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 43b82fa..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/for.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,142 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-for: - -for Loops -========= - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Description ------------ - -A ``for`` loop is used to repeat a block of statements enclosed in -curly braces. ``for`` loops are useful for performing repetitive -operations, and are often used in combination with :ref:`arrays -` to operate on collections of data or multiple -:ref:`pins `. A ``for`` loop is composed of two parts: first, a -*header*, which sets up the for loop, and then a *body*, which is made -up of lines of code enclosed in curly braces. - -There are three parts to the ``for`` loop header: an *initialization* -expression, *loop condition* expression, and a *post-loop* -expression. The general syntax looks like this:: - - for (initialization; condition; post-loop) { - // all of these lines inside the curly braces are part - // of the loop body. - statement 1; - statement 2; - ... - } - -(Note that there is no semicolon after the post-loop). The -initialization happens first and exactly once, before the loop begins. -Each time through the loop, the condition is tested. The condition is -a :ref:`boolean arduino-boolean` expression. If it is true, then the -list of statements inside the curly braces are executed. Next, the -post-loop is executed. The loop then begins again by evaluating the -condition again, entering the loop body if it is true. This proceeds -until the condition becomes false. - -Examples --------- - -Here's an example:: - - // Dim an LED using a PWM pin - int pwmPin = 9; // LED in series with 470 ohm resistor on pin 9 - - void setup() { - pinMode(pwmPin, PWM); - } - - void loop() { - for (int i=0; i <= 65535; i++) { - pwmWrite(pwmPin, i); - delay(1); - } - } - -There is a ``for`` loop In the :ref:`loop() ` function -of the above example. This loop starts by declaring an ``int`` -variable named ``i``, whose value starts out at zero. The loop -proceeds by checking if ``i`` is less than or equal to 65535. Since -``i`` is zero, this is true, and so the calls to :ref:`pwmWrite() -` and :ref:`arduino-delay` happen next. At this -point, the post-loop expression ``i++`` is evaluated, which -:ref:`increments ` ``i``, so that ``i`` becomes -one. That concludes the first time through the loop. Each "time -through the loop" is referred to as an *iteration*. - -The loop then jumps back to the beginning, checking the condition as -the beginning of its second iteration (initialization is skipped, -since this only happens once, before the first iteration). One is -less than 65535, so the loop statements are executed again. This -proceeds over and over until the iteration when ``i`` finally -reaches 65536. At that point, the condition is no longer true, so the -loop stops executing, and the ``loop()`` function returns. - -Here's another example, using a ``for`` loop to brighten and fade an -LED (see the :ref:`pwmWrite() ` reference for more -information):: - - int pwmPin = 9; // hook up the LED to pin 9 - void loop() { - int x = 1; - for (int i = 0; i >= 0; i += x) { - analogWrite(pwmPin, i); // controls the brightness of the LED - if (i == 65535) { - x = -1; // switch direction, so i starts decreasing - } - delay(1); - } - } - -Coding Tips ------------ - -The C ``for`` loop is more flexible than ``for`` loops found in some -other computer languages, including BASIC. Any or all of the three -header elements may be left blank, although the semicolons are -required. Also the statements for initialization, condition, and -post-loop can be any valid C statements, and use any C datatypes, -including :ref:`floating point numbers `. These types -of unusual ``for`` loops sometimes provide solutions to less-common -programming problems. - -For example, using a multiplication in the post-loop line will -generate a `geometric progression -`_:: - - for(int x = 1; x <= 100; x = x * 2) { - SerialUSB.println(x); - } - - -This loop prints out the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 64. Check -your understanding of ``for`` loops by answering the following two -questions (answers are in footnote [#fanswers]_\ ): - -1. How many iterations occur before the loop finishes? - -2. Why does it stop at 64? - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`while ` loops -- :ref:`do ` loops - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fanswers] - 1. Seven. - - 2. After the seventh iteration, the post-loop causes ``x`` to - equal 128. This is larger than 100, so the loop condition is - false, and the loop stops. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst b/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 2901913..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/goto.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,130 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-goto: - -Labels and goto -=============== - -A *label* gives a name to a line of code within a function. You can -label a line by writing a name for it, then a colon (``:``), before -the line starts. The ``goto`` keyword allows program flow to transfer -to a labeled line from anywhere within the same function. - -.. warning:: The use of ``goto`` is discouraged in C and C++ - programming. It is *never necessary* to use ``goto`` to write a - program. - - Unless you know what you're doing, using ``goto`` tends to - encourage code which is harder to debug and understand than - programs without ``goto`` that do the same thing. That said, - however, it's sometimes useful; :ref:`see below ` - for a concrete example. - -Using Labels and goto ---------------------- - -Labels and ``goto`` are probably best explained through example. -Let's start with an example of how to label lines. The first line -(``int x = analogRead(some_pin);``) in the :ref:`loop ` -function below has label ``readpin``. The third line (``delay(x);``) -has label ``startdelay``. The second line (``SerialUSB.println(x);``) -does not have a label:: - - void loop() { - readpin: - int x = analogRead(some_pin); - SerialUSB.println(x); // for debugging - startdelay: - delay(x); - // ... more code ... - } - -Anything which can be a :ref:`variable ` name can -be a label. - -Let's say that we wanted to print ``x`` only if it was very large, say -at least 2000. We might want to do this just so anybody watching on a -:ref:`serial monitor ` would know they were in for -a longer wait than usual. We can accomplish this through the use of a -``goto`` statement that skips the printing if ``x`` is less than -2000:: - - void loop() { - readpin: - int x = analogRead(some_pin); - if (x < 2000) { - goto startdelay; - } - SerialUSB.println(x); // for debugging - startdelay: - delay(x); - // ... more code ... - } - -In this modified program, whenever ``x`` is less than 2000, the body -of the :ref:`if ` statement in the second line is -executed. The ``goto`` statement inside the ``if`` body skips -straight to the line labeled ``startdelay``, passing over the line -doing the printing. - -A ``goto`` does not have to "move forwards"; it can go "backwards", -too. For example, the following program prints "5" forever (why?):: - - void loop() { - printfive: - SerialUSB.println(5); - goto printfive; - SerialUSB.println(6); - } - -.. _goto-when-to-use: - -When to Use goto ----------------- - -As mentioned above, use of ``goto`` is `generally discouraged -`_. However, -when used with care, ``goto`` can simplify certain programs. One -important use case for ``goto`` is breaking out of deeply nested -:ref:`for ` loops or :ref:`if ` logic blocks. -Here's an example:: - - for(int r = 0; r < 255; r++) { - for(int g = 255; g > -1; g--) { - for(int b = 0; b < 255; b++) { - if (analogRead(0) > 250) { - goto bailout; - } - // more statements ... - } - // innermost loop ends here - } - } - bailout: - // more code here - -In the above example, whenever the :ref:`analog reading -` on pin 0 was greater than 250, the program would -jump to the line labeled ``bailout``, exiting all three loops at once. - -While there is already a :ref:`break ` keyword for -breaking out of a loop, it will only break out of the *innermost* -loop. So, if instead of saying "``goto bailout;``", there was a -"``break;``" instead, the program would only exit from the loop with -header "``for(int b = 0; b < 255; b++)``". The program would continue -at the line which reads "``// innermost loop ends here``", which is -clearly undesirable if you wanted to leave all three loops at once. - -More examples of when ``goto`` is a good choice are given in Donald -Knuth's paper, "Structured Programming with go to Statements"; see -below for a link. - -See Also --------- - -- Dijkstra, Edsger W. `Go To Statement Considered Harmful `_ (PDF) - -- Knuth, Donald. `Structured Programming with go to Statements `_ (PDF) - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5b1c24e..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/highbyte.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,53 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-highbyte: - -highByte(x) -=========== - -.. warning:: This macro is provided for compatibility with Arduino - only. It returns the second-least significant byte in an integral - value. It makes sense to call this the "high" byte on a 16-bit - ``int`` microcontroller like the Atmel chips on Arduinos, but it - makes no sense at all on a 32-bit microcontroller like the STM32s - in the Maple line. - - In short: we provide this so that existing Arduino code works as - expected, but **strongly discourage its use** in new programs. - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Extracts the second lowest byte of an integral data type. - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: a value of any integral type. - -Returns -------- - -Second lowest byte in **x**. - -Example -------- - -:: - - int x = 0xDEADBEEF; - SerialUSB.println(x, HEX); // prints "BE" - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple version of ``highByte()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`lowByte() ` - - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/if.rst b/docs/source/arduino/if.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 89af166..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/if.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,81 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-if: - -if Statements -============= - -An ``if`` statement is used to execute code when certain conditions -are met. The general syntax for an ``if`` statement is:: - - if (condition) { - body - } - -An ``if`` statement first tests whether its *condition* is true (such -as an input being above a certain number). If the condition is true, -the ``if`` statement executes its *body*, which is made up of lines of -code inside :ref:`curly braces `. If the condition is -false, the body is not executed. Here's a more concrete example:: - - if (someVariable > 50) { - // do something here - } - -The program tests to see if ``someVariable`` is greater than 50. If it -is, the program executes every line in the curly braces (which in the -above example does nothing, since the body is just the :ref:`comment -` line "``// do something here``"). - -Put another way, if the statement in parentheses is true, the -statements inside the braces are run. If not, the program skips over -the code. - -An ``if`` statement's condition (which is inside the parentheses after -``if``) often uses one or more :ref:`boolean ` or -:ref:`comparison ` operators. - -Writing the if Body -------------------- - -The brackets may be omitted after an ``if`` statement's -conditional. If this is done, the next line (which ends in a -semicolon) becomes the only line in the body. The following three -``if`` statements all do the same thing:: - - if (x > 120) digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); - - if (x > 120) - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); - - if (x > 120) { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); - } - -However, the following two examples are different:: - - // example 1: two lines of code in the if body - if (x > 120) { - digitalWrite(ledPin1, HIGH); - digitalWrite(ledPin2, HIGH); - } - - // example 2: one line of code in the if body, and - // another line of code after the if statement - if (x > 120) - digitalWrite(ledPin1, HIGH); // this is in the if body - digitalWrite(ledPin2, HIGH); // this is NOT in the if body - -In the first example, since the body is enclosed in curly braces, both -lines are included. In the second example, since the curly braces are -missing, only the first line is in the ``if`` body. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`boolean operators ` -- :ref:`comparison operators ` -- :ref:`else ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/include.rst b/docs/source/arduino/include.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 37553f4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/include.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-include: - -#include -======== - -``#include`` is used to include outside libraries in your sketch. -This gives the programmer access to a large group of standard C -libraries (groups of pre-made functions and data types), and also -libraries written especially for Maple. - -Example -------- - -This example (from the `Arduino LiquidCrystal Tutorial -`_) includes a library -that is used to control :ref:`LCD displays `:: - - // include the library code: - #include - - // initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins - LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2); - - void setup() { - // set up the LCD's number of columns and rows: - lcd.begin(16, 2); - // Print a message to the LCD. - lcd.print("hello, world!"); - } - - void loop() { - // set the cursor to column 0, line 1 - // (note: line 1 is the second row, since counting begins with 0): - lcd.setCursor(0, 1); - // print the number of seconds since reset: - lcd.print(millis()/1000); - } - -Note that a ``#include`` line, like :ref:`#define `, -has **no semicolon**. The compiler will print strange error messages -if you add one. - -C Standard Library ------------------- - -The standard C library that comes with Maple is called `newlib -`_. Its main sources of documentation -are its `main reference `_ -page and its `math functions -`_ reference page. Here's an -example that imports the math.h library in order to take the `cube -root `_ of a number:: - - #include - - void setup() { - // no setup necessary - } - - void loop() { - // "cbrt" stands for "cube root" - double cubeRootOf3 = cbrt(3.0); - // prints a number that is approximately the cube root of 3: - SerialUSB.println(cubeRootOf3); - } - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst b/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 38dee6c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/increment.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-increment: - -Increment (``++``) and Decrement (``--``) -========================================= - -These operators increment (add one to) or decrement (subtract one -from) a variable. If they come before the variable, they return its -new value; otherwise, they return its old value. - -Some quick examples:: - - x++; // adds one to x, and returns the old value of x - ++x; // adds one to x, and returns the new value of x - - x--; // decrement x by one and returns the old value of x - --x; // decrement x by one and returns the new value of x - -A more extended example:: - - x = 2; - y = ++x; // x now contains 3, y contains 3 - y = x--; // x contains 2 again, y still contains 3 - -.. warning:: Be careful! You cannot put a space in between the two - ``+`` or ``-`` signs. This example is broken:: - - // this line won't compile (notice the extra space): - int y = x+ +; - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: an integer value (like an ``int``, ``long``, ``unsigned int``, -etc.). - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`Compound arithmetic operators ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/int.rst b/docs/source/arduino/int.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 690deb8..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/int.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-int: - -int -=== - -Description ------------ - -The ``int`` data type represents integers. Integers are your primary -data type for number storage, and store a 4 byte value. This yields a -range of -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 (minimum value of -2^31 and a -maximum value of (2^31) - 1; that's about negative 2 billion to -positive 2 billion). - -An ``int`` stores a negative number with a technique called `two's -complement math -`_\ . -The highest bit in an ``int``, sometimes refered to as the "sign" bit, -flags the number as a negative number. (See the linked article on -two's complement for more information). - -The Maple takes care of dealing with negative numbers for you, so that -arithmetic operations work mostly as you'd expect. There can be an -:ref:`unexpected complication ` in -dealing with the :ref:`bitshift right operator (>>) -`, however. - -Here is an example of declaring an ``int`` variable named ``ledPin``, -then giving it value 13:: - - int ledPin = 13; - -The general syntax for declaring an ``int`` variable named ``var``, -then giving it value ``val``, looks like:: - - int var = val; - -.. _arduino-int-overflow: - -Integer Overflow ----------------- - -When ``int`` variables leave the range specified above, they "roll -over" in the other direction. It's like in the game *Pac-Man* -- when -Pac-Man goes past the right edge of the screen, he reappears on the -left, and when he goes past the left side of the screen, he reappears -on the right. Here are some examples:: - - int x; - x = -2,147,483,648; - x--; // x now contains 2,147,483,647; rolled over "left to right" - - x = 2,147,483,647; - x++; // x now contains -2,147,483,648; rolled over "right to left" - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`unsigned int ` -- :ref:`char ` -- :ref:`unsigned char ` -- :ref:`long ` -- :ref:`unsigned long ` -- :ref:`Integer Constants ` -- :ref:`Variables ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0b34a39..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/intcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-intcast: - -int() -===== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the :ref:`int ` data type. Here is -an example:: - - double d = 2.5; - int i = int(d); // i holds "2", an int value - -The value inside of the parentheses (``int(...)``) can be of any type. -However, if it is not a numeric type (like ``double``, ``char``, -etc.), you will get strange results. - -See the :ref:`int ` reference for details about the -precision and limitations of ``int`` variables on the Maple. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`int ` - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst b/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b9c95b1..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/interrupts.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,62 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-interrupts: - -interrupts() -============ - -Description ------------ - -Re-enables interrupts (after they've been disabled by -`noInterrupts `_\ ()). -Interrupts allow certain important tasks to happen in the -background and are enabled by default. Some functions will not work -while interrupts are disabled, and incoming communication may be -ignored. Interrupts can slightly disrupt the timing of code, -however, and may be disabled for particularly critical sections of -code. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None - - - -Returns -------- - -None - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - noInterrupts(); - // critical, time-sensitive code here - interrupts(); - // other code here - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `noInterrupts `_\ () -- `attachInterrupt `_\ () -- `detachInterrupt `_\ () - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/long.rst b/docs/source/arduino/long.rst deleted file mode 100644 index cae659a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/long.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-long: - -long -==== - -Description ------------ - -The ``long`` data type stores extended size integer values. You can -use a ``long`` when your values are too large to fit into an :ref:`int -`. A ``long`` occupies 8 bytes of memory. This yields a -range of approximately -9.2×10^18 to 9.2×10^18 (that's 9.2 billion -billion, or about 92 million times the number of stars in the Milky -Way galaxy). The exact range of a ``long`` on the Maple is from --9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807, or -2^63 to -(2^63-1). - -Here's an example of declaring a long (see :ref:`integer constants -` for explanation of the 'L'):: - - // Speed of light in nanometers per second (approximate). - long c = 299792458000000000L; - -The general syntax for declaring an ``long`` variable named ``var``, -then giving it value ``val``, looks like:: - - long var = val; - -This is identical to the ``int`` syntax, with ``long`` replacing -``int``. - -Note that ``long`` values will still :ref:`overflow -`, just like ``int`` values, but their much -larger range makes this less likely to happen. - -The downside to using a ``long`` instead of an ``int`` (besides the -extra storage) is that :ref:`arithmetic ` -operations on ``long``\ s will take longer than on ``int``\ s. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`char ` -- :ref:`unsigned char ` -- :ref:`int ` -- :ref:`unsigned int ` -- :ref:`unsigned long ` -- :ref:`Integer Constants ` -- :ref:`Variables ` - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f247dae..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/longcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-longcast: - -long() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Converts a value to the :ref:`long ` data type. Here is -an example:: - - double d = 2.5; - long i = long(d); // i holds "2L", an long value - -The value inside of the parentheses (``long(...)``) can be of any type. -However, if it is not a numeric type (like ``double``, ``char``, -etc.), you will get strange results. - -See the :ref:`long ` reference for details about the -precision and limitations of ``long`` variables on the Maple. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`long ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst b/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 4383ab6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/loop.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,45 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-loop: - -loop() -====== - -After creating a :ref:`setup() ` function, which -initializes your sketch, the ``loop()`` function gets called -repeatedly, allowing your program to change and respond. Use it to -actively control your Maple board. - -Example -------- - -:: - - - int buttonPin = 38; - - // setup initializes serial and the button pin - void setup() { - SerialUSB.begin(); - pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); - } - - // loop() checks the button pin each time it executes, - // and will print 'H' if it is pressed, 'L' otherwise - void loop() { - if (digitalRead(buttonPin) == HIGH) { - SerialUSB.println('H'); - } else { - SerialUSB.println('L'); - } - - delay(1000); - } - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`setup() ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst b/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9331181..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/lowbyte.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,45 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-lowbyte: - -lowByte() -========= - -Description ------------ - -Extracts the low-order (rightmost) byte of a variable (e.g. a -word). - - - -Syntax ------- - -lowByte(x) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -Returns -------- - -byte - - - -See also --------- - - -- `highByte `_\ () -- `word `_\ () - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/map.rst b/docs/source/arduino/map.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 61aa626..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/map.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,122 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-map: - -map(value, fromLow, fromHigh, toLow, toHigh) -============================================ - -Description ------------ - -Re-maps a number from one range to another. That is, a **value** of -**fromLow** would get mapped to **toLow**, a value of **fromHigh** -to **toHigh**, values in-between to values in-between, etc. - - - -Does not constrain values to within the range, because out-of-range -values are sometimes intended and useful. The constrain() function -may be used either before or after this function, if limits to the -ranges are desired. - - - -Note that the "lower bounds" of either range may be larger or -smaller than the "upper bounds" so the map() function may be used -to reverse a range of numbers, for example - - - -``y = map(x, 1, 50, 50, 1);`` - - - -The function also handles negative numbers well, so that this -example - - - -``y = map(x, 1, 50, 50, -100);`` - - - -is also valid and works well. - - - -The map() function uses integer math so will not generate -fractions, when the math might indicate that it should do so. -Fractional remainders are truncated, and are not rounded or -averaged. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -value: the number to map - - - -fromLow: the lower bound of the value's current range - - - -fromHigh: the upper bound of the value's current range - - - -toLow: the lower bound of the value's target range - - - -toHigh: the upper bound of the value's target range - - - -Returns -------- - -The mapped value. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - /* Map an analog value to 8 bits (0 to 255) */ - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - int val = analogRead(0); - val = map(val, 0, 1023, 0, 255); - analogWrite(9, val); - } - - - -Appendix -~~~~~~~~ - -For the mathematically inclined, here's the whole function - - - -:: - - long map(long x, long in_min, long in_max, long out_min, long out_max) - { - return (x - in_min) * (out_max - out_min) / (in_max - in_min) + out_min; - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `constrain `_\ () - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/max.rst b/docs/source/arduino/max.rst deleted file mode 100644 index a80c421..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/max.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,63 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-max: - -max(x, y) -========= - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Calculates the maximum of two numbers. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: the first number; may be any number or numeric expression. - -**y**: the second number; may be any number or numeric expression. - - -Returns -------- - -The larger of the two parameter values. - -Example -------- - -:: - - sensVal = max(senVal, 20); // assigns sensVal to the larger of sensVal or 20 - // (effectively ensuring that it is at least 20) - -.. note:: Perhaps counter-intuitively, max() is often used to - constrain the lower end of a variable's range, while :ref:`min() - ` is used to constrain the upper end of the range. - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way ``max()`` is implemented, avoid using other -functions inside the parentheses. It may lead to incorrect results:: - - max(a--, 0); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - a--; // use this instead - - max(a, 0); // keep other operations outside max() - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple version of ``max()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`min() ` -- :ref:`constrain() ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst b/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst deleted file mode 100644 index bd8b926..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/micros.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,69 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-micros: - -micros() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Returns the number of microseconds since the Arduino board began -running the current program. This number will overflow (go back to -zero), after approximately 70 minutes. On 16 MHz Arduino boards -(e.g. Duemilanove and Nano), this function has a resolution of four -microseconds (i.e. the value returned is always a multiple of -four). On 8 MHz Arduino boards (e.g. the LilyPad), this function -has a resolution of eight microseconds. - - - -*Note*: there are 1,000 microseconds in a millisecond and 1,000,000 -microseconds in a second. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None - - - -Returns -------- - -Number of microseconds since the program started (*unsigned long*) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned long time; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - } - void loop(){ - Serial.print("Time: "); - time = micros(); - //prints time since program started - Serial.println(time); - // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data - delay(1000); - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `millis `_\ () -- `delay `_\ () -- `delayMicroseconds `_\ () - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst b/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f52d396..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/millis.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-millis: - -millis() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Returns the number of milliseconds since the Arduino board began -running the current program. This number will overflow (go back to -zero), after approximately 50 days. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None - - - -Returns -------- - -Number of milliseconds since the program started (*unsigned long*) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned long time; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - } - void loop(){ - Serial.print("Time: "); - time = millis(); - //prints time since program started - Serial.println(time); - // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data - delay(1000); - } - - - -Tip: ----- - -Note that the parameter for millis is an unsigned long, errors may -be generated if a programmer tries to do math with other datatypes -such as ints. - - - -See also --------- - - -- `micros `_\ () -- `delay `_\ () -- `delayMicroseconds `_\ () -- `Tutorial: Blink Without Delay `_ - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/min.rst b/docs/source/arduino/min.rst deleted file mode 100644 index efe78ca..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/min.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,66 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-min: - -min(x, y) -========= - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) Calculates the minimum of two numbers. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -**x**: the first number; may be any number or numeric expression. - -**y**: the second number; may be any number or numeric expression. - - -Returns -------- - -The smaller of the two numbers. - - -Example -------- - -:: - - sensVal = min(sensVal, 100); // assigns sensVal to the smaller of sensVal or 100 - // ensuring that it never gets above 100. - - -.. note:: Perhaps counter-intuitively, max() is often used to - constrain the lower end of a variable's range, while min() is used - to constrain the upper end of the range. - - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way ``min()`` is implemented, avoid using other -functions inside the parentheses. It may lead to incorrect results:: - - min(a++, 100); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - a++; // use this instead - - min(a, 100); // keep other operations outside min() - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple version of ``min()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`max() ` -- :ref:`constrain() ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst b/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst deleted file mode 100644 index bb65600..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/modulo.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,77 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-modulo: - -% (modulo) -========== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the `remainder `_ -when one integer is divided by another. It is useful for keeping a -variable within a particular range (e.g. the size of an array). - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - result = dividend % divisor - - - -Parameters ----------- - -**dividend**: the number to be divided - -**divisor**: the number to divide by - -Returns -------- - -The remainder of **dividend**\ /\ **divisor**\ . - -Examples --------- - -:: - - int x; - x = 7 % 5; // x now contains 2 - x = 9 % 5; // x now contains 4 - x = 5 % 5; // x now contains 0 - x = 4 % 5; // x now contains 4 - -:: - - /* update one value in an array each time through a loop */ - - int values[10]; - int i = 0; - - void setup() { - // no setup necessary - } - - void loop() { - values[i] = analogRead(0); - i = (i + 1) % 10; // modulo operator makes sure i stays between 0 and 9 - } - -Tip ---- - -The modulo operator does not work on floats. For that, you can use -the C standard library function `fmod() -`_. - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`Arithmetic ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst b/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 8711ebb..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/nointerrupts.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,59 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-nointerrupts: - -noInterrupts() -============== - -Description ------------ - -Disables interrupts (you can re-enable them with interrupts()). -Interrupts allow certain important tasks to happen in the -background and are enabled by default. Some functions will not work -while interrupts are disabled, and incoming communication may be -ignored. Interrupts can slightly disrupt the timing of code, -however, and may be disabled for particularly critical sections of -code. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -None. - - - -Returns -------- - -None. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - void setup() {} - - void loop() - { - noInterrupts(); - // critical, time-sensitive code here - interrupts(); - // other code here - } - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `interrupts `_\ () - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst b/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9e59065..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/notone.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-notone: - -noTone() -======== - -Description ------------ - -Stops the generation of a square wave triggered by -`tone `_\ (). Has no effect if -no tone is being generated. - - - -**NOTE:** if you want to play different pitches on multiple pins, -you need to call noTone() on one pin before calling tone() on the -next pin. - - - -Syntax ------- - -noTone(pin) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin on which to stop generating the tone - - - -Returns -------- - -nothing - - - -See also --------- - - -- `tone `_ () - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e84e1e6..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pinmode.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,76 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-pinmode: - -pinMode() -========= - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: pinMode - -.. doxygenenum:: WiringPinMode - -Discussion ----------- - -pinMode() is usually called within :ref:`arduino-setup` in order to -configure a pin for a certain usage (although it may be called -anywhere). - - -Example -------- - - :: - - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 - - void setup() - { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on - delay(1000); // waits for a second - digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off - delay(1000); // waits for a second - } - - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The libmaple implementation of pinMode() supports OUTPUT and INPUT -modes with a meaning identical to that of the Arduino function. - -INPUT_ANALOG and PWM modes were added because the Maple does not -distinguish between analog and digital pins the same way the Arduino -does. Unlike the Arduino, you **must call pinMode**\ () to set up a pin -for these purposes before a call to, e.g., :ref:`arduino-analogRead`. -In practice, this should only add a few lines of pinMode() calls to -your :ref:`arduino-setup` function. - -OUTPUT_OPEN_DRAIN, INPUT_PULLUP, INPUT_PULLDOWN, and PWM_OPEN_DRAIN -modes represent functionality not currently available on Arduino -boards. - -See also --------- - -- :ref:`arduino-constants` -- :ref:`arduino-digitalwrite` -- :ref:`arduino-digitalread` -- Maple :ref:`GPIO ` reference page - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst deleted file mode 100644 index efc81ca..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pointer.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-pointer: - -The pointer operators: & (reference) and \* (dereference) -========================================================= - - -Pointers are one of the more complicated subjects for beginners in -learning C, and it is possible to write the vast majority of -Arduino sketches without ever encountering pointers. However for -manipulating certain data structures, the use of pointers can -simplify the code, and and knowledge of manipulating pointers is -handy to have in one's toolkit. - -Introducing pointers is somewhat outside the scope of this -documentation. However, a good `pointer tutorial -`_ is available. -Also see the `Wikipedia article on pointers -`_, especially -the section on `pointers in C -`_. - -See Also -======== - -- http://xkcd.com/138/ - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0a7355c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pow.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-pow: - -pow(base, exponent) -=================== - -Calculates the value of a number raised to a power. - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: pow - -Example -------- - -``pow()`` can be used to raise a number to a fractional power. This -is useful for e.g. generating exponential mapping of values or -curves. See the `fscale `_ -function in the Arduino playground for more on this. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`sqrt() ` -- :ref:`float ` -- :ref:`double ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst b/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f26f754..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/pulsein.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,82 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-pulsein: - -pulseIn() -========= - -Description ------------ - -Reads a pulse (either HIGH or LOW) on a pin. For example, if -**value** is **HIGH**, **pulseIn()** waits for the pin to go -**HIGH**, starts timing, then waits for the pin to go **LOW** and -stops timing. Returns the length of the pulse in microseconds. -Gives up and returns 0 if no pulse starts within a specified time -out. - - - -The timing of this function has been determined empirically and -will probably show errors in longer pulses. Works on pulses from 10 -microseconds to 3 minutes in length. - - - -Syntax ------- - -pulseIn(pin, value) -pulseIn(pin, value, timeout) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the number of the pin on which you want to read the pulse. -(*int*) - - - -value: type of pulse to read: either -`HIGH `_ or -`LOW `_. (*int*) - - - -timeout (optional): the number of microseconds to wait for the -pulse to start; default is one second (*unsigned long*) - - - -Returns -------- - -the length of the pulse (in microseconds) or 0 if no pulse started -before the timeout (*unsigned long*) - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - - - int pin = 7; - unsigned long duration; - - void setup() - { - pinMode(pin, INPUT); - } - - void loop() - { - duration = pulseIn(pin, HIGH); - } - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/random.rst b/docs/source/arduino/random.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 8da92b0..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/random.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,95 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-random: - -random() -======== - -Description ------------ - -The random function generates pseudo-random numbers. - - - -Syntax ------- - -random(max) -random(min, max) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -min - lower bound of the random value, inclusive *(optional)* - - - -max - upper bound of the random value, exclusive - - - -Returns -------- - -a random number between min and max-1 (*long*) - - - -Note: ------ - -If it is important for a sequence of values generated by random() -to differ, on subsequent executions of a sketch, use randomSeed() -to initialize the random number generator with a fairly random -input, such as analogRead() on an unconnected pin. - - - -Conversely, it can occasionally be useful to use pseudo-random -sequences that repeat exactly. This can be accomplished by calling -randomSeed() with a fixed number, before starting the random -sequence. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - long randNumber; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - - // if analog input pin 0 is unconnected, random analog - // noise will cause the call to randomSeed() to generate - // different seed numbers each time the sketch runs. - // randomSeed() will then shuffle the random function. - randomSeed(analogRead(0)); - } - - void loop() { - // print a random number from 0 to 299 - randNumber = random(300); - Serial.println(randNumber); - - // print a random number from 10 to 19 - randNumber = random(10, 20); - Serial.println(randNumber); - - delay(50); - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `randomSeed `_\ () - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst b/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 983c66d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/randomseed.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,73 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-randomseed: - -randomSeed(seed) -================ - -Description ------------ - -randomSeed() initializes the pseudo-random number generator, -causing it to start at an arbitrary point in its random sequence. -This sequence, while very long, and random, is always the same. - - - -If it is important for a sequence of values generated by random() -to differ, on subsequent executions of a sketch, use randomSeed() -to initialize the random number generator with a fairly random -input, such as analogRead() on an unconnected pin. - - - -Conversely, it can occasionally be useful to use pseudo-random -sequences that repeat exactly. This can be accomplished by calling -randomSeed() with a fixed number, before starting the random -sequence. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -long, int - pass a number to generate the seed. - - - -Returns -------- - -no returns - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - long randNumber; - - void setup(){ - Serial.begin(9600); - randomSeed(analogRead(0)); - } - - void loop(){ - randNumber = random(300); - Serial.println(randNumber); - - delay(50); - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `random `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/return.rst b/docs/source/arduino/return.rst deleted file mode 100644 index fd1493d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/return.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,61 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-return: - -return -====== - -(Keyword) Terminates a function and return a value from a function to -the calling function, if the function has non-``void`` return type. - -Syntax: -------- - -:: - - // from within a "void" function: - return; - - // from within a non-"void" function: - return value; - -In the second case, ``value`` should have a type which is the same as -the return type of the function, or be convertible to it (like an -``int`` to a ``long``, etc.; see :ref:`this note -` for some references). - -Examples: ---------- - -A function to compare a sensor input to a threshold:: - - // converts analog readings between 0 and 400 to 0, and 400 up to 1. - int checkSensor() { - if (analogRead(0) > 400) { - return 1; - else { - return 0; - } - } - -An early ``return`` is also useful when testing a section of code -without having to "comment out" large sections of possibly buggy code, -like so:: - - void loop() { - - // brilliant code idea to test here - - return; - - // the rest of a dysfunctional sketch here - // this code will never be executed - } - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`comments ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst b/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5974825..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/scope.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,62 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-scope: - -Variable Scope -============== - -Variables in the C++ programming language, which Maple uses (all of -your sketches are C++ programs in disguise), have a property called -*scope*. This is in contrast to languages such as BASIC where every -variable is a *global* variable. - -A global variable is one that can be "seen" by every function in a -program. Local variables are only usable within the function in which -they are declared. In the :ref:`Maple IDE `, any variable -declared outside of a function (like :ref:`setup() `, -:ref:`loop() `, etc.), is a global variable. - -When programs start to get larger and more complex, local variables -are a useful way to ensure that a function has exclusive access to its -own variables. This prevents programming errors when one function -inadvertently modifies variables used by another function. - -It is also sometimes useful to declare and initialize a variable -inside a :ref:`for ` loop. This creates a variable that -can only be accessed from inside the loop body. - -Scope in C++ is actually a fairly complex topic. More information is -available in the `C++ programming Wikibook -`_. - -Example: --------- - -:: - - int globalVar; // any function will see this variable - - void setup() { - // ... - } - - void loop() { - int i; // "i" is only "visible" inside of "loop" - float f; // "f" is only "visible" inside of "loop" - // ... - - for (int j = 0; j <100; j++){ - // variable j can only be accessed inside the for-loop brackets - i = j * j; - } - i = globalVar; // globalVar can be accessed from anywhere, including loop() - } - -See Also --------- - -- `C++ programming Wikibook `_. -- Wikipedia article on `scope `_ - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst b/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b90d925..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/semicolon.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-semicolon: - -Semicolon (;) -============= - -Used to end a line of code. Example:: - - int a = 13; - -Tip ---- - -Forgetting to end a line in a semicolon will result in a compiler -error. The error text may be obvious, and refer to a missing -semicolon, or it may not. If an impenetrable or seemingly illogical -compiler error comes up, one of the first things to check is a -missing semicolon, in the immediate vicinity, preceding the line at -which the compiler complained. - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst b/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1bcd28d..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/serial.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,68 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-serial: - -Serial -====== - -Used for communication between the Arduino board and a computer or -other devices. All Arduino boards have at least one serial port -(also known as a UART or USART): **Serial**. It communicates on -digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX) as well as with the computer via -USB. Thus, if you use these functions, you cannot also use pins 0 -and 1 for digital input or output. - - - -You can use the Arduino environment's built-in serial monitor to -communicate with an Arduino board. Click the serial monitor button -in the toolbar and select the same baud rate used in the call to -begin(). - - - -The Arduino Mega has three additional serial ports: **Serial1** on -pins 19 (RX) and 18 (TX), **Serial2** on pins 17 (RX) and 16 (TX), -**Serial3** on pins 15 (RX) and 14 (TX). To use these pins to -communicate with your personal computer, you will need an -additional USB-to-serial adaptor, as they are not connected to the -Mega's USB-to-serial adaptor. To use them to communicate with an -external TTL serial device, connect the TX pin to your device's RX -pin, the RX to your device's TX pin, and the ground of your Mega to -your device's ground. (Don't connect these pins directly to an -RS232 serial port; they operate at +/- 12V and can damage your -Arduino board.) - - - -Functions ---------- - - -- `begin `_\ () -- `end `_\ () -- `available `_\ () -- `read `_\ () -- `flush `_\ () -- `print `_\ () - -.. _arduino-serial-println: - -- `println `_\ () -- `write `_\ () - - - -Examples --------- - - -- `ASCII Table `_ -- `Dimmer `_ -- `Graph `_ -- `Physical Pixel `_ -- `Virtual Color Mixer `_ -- `Serial Call Response `_ -- `Serial Call Response ASCII `_ - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst b/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9cc96d4..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/setup.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-setup: - -setup() -======= - -The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to -initialize variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The -setup function will only run once, after each powerup or reset of -the Arduino board. - - - -Example -~~~~~~~ - -:: - - - int buttonPin = 3; - - void setup() - { - Serial.begin(9600); - pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); - } - - void loop() - { - // ... - } - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst b/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 3815dc5..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/shiftout.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,136 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-shiftout: - -shiftOut() -========== - -Description ------------ - -Shifts out a byte of data one bit at a time. Starts from either the -most (i.e. the leftmost) or least (rightmost) significant bit. Each -bit is written in turn to a data pin, after which a clock pin is -pulsed to indicate that the bit is available. - - - -This is a software implementation; Arduino (as of 0019) also -provides an `SPI library `_ -that uses the hardware implementation. - - - -Syntax ------- - -shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, bitOrder, value) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -dataPin: the pin on which to output each bit (*int*) - - - -clockPin: the pin to toggle once the **dataPin** has been set to -the correct value (*int*) - - - -bitOrder: which order to shift out the bits; either **MSBFIRST** or -**LSBFIRST**. -(Most Significant Bit First, or, Least Significant Bit First) - - - -value: the data to shift out. (*byte*) - - - -Returns -------- - -None - - - -Note ----- - -The **dataPin** and **clockPin** must already be configured as -outputs by a call to -`pinMode `_\ (). - - - -**shiftOut** is currently written to output 1 byte (8 bits) so it -requires a two step operation to output values larger than 255. - -:: - - // Do this for MSBFIRST serial - int data = 500; - // shift out highbyte - shiftOut(dataPin, clock, MSBFIRST, (data >> 8)); - // shift out lowbyte - shiftOut(data, clock, MSBFIRST, data); - - // Or do this for LSBFIRST serial - data = 500; - // shift out lowbyte - shiftOut(dataPin, clock, LSBFIRST, data); - // shift out highbyte - shiftOut(dataPin, clock, LSBFIRST, (data >> 8)); - - - -Example -------- - -*For accompanying circuit, see the `tutorial on controlling a 74HC595 shift register `_.* - - - -:: - - //**************************************************************// - // Name : shiftOutCode, Hello World // - // Author : Carlyn Maw,Tom Igoe // - // Date : 25 Oct, 2006 // - // Version : 1.0 // - // Notes : Code for using a 74HC595 Shift Register // - // : to count from 0 to 255 // - //**************************************************************** - - //Pin connected to ST_CP of 74HC595 - int latchPin = 8; - //Pin connected to SH_CP of 74HC595 - int clockPin = 12; - ////Pin connected to DS of 74HC595 - int dataPin = 11; - - void setup() { - //set pins to output because they are addressed in the main loop - pinMode(latchPin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(clockPin, OUTPUT); - pinMode(dataPin, OUTPUT); - } - - void loop() { - //count up routine - for (int j = 0; j < 256; j++) { - //ground latchPin and hold low for as long as you are transmitting - digitalWrite(latchPin, LOW); - shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, LSBFIRST, j); - //return the latch pin high to signal chip that it - //no longer needs to listen for information - digitalWrite(latchPin, HIGH); - delay(1000); - } - } - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst deleted file mode 100644 index b117f5f..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sin.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-sin: - -sin() -===== - -Calculates the `sine `_ of an angle -(in radians). - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: sin - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple versino of ``sin()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`cos ` -- :ref:`tan ` -- :ref:`float ` -- :ref:`double ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 7c31809..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sizeof.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,64 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-sizeof: - -sizeof() -======== - -The ``sizeof`` operator on the Maple returns the number of bytes -needed to store a value of a given type\ [#fcharsize]_. This can be -an ordinary numeric type, like ``int``. It can be something more -complicated, like a ``struct`` or ``union``. If the argument to -``sizeof`` is an array, it returns the total number of bytes occupied -by the array. - -The general syntax looks like this:: - - sizeof(type) - sizeof(var) - -Example -------- - -The ``sizeof`` operator is useful for dealing with arrays (such as -strings) where it is convenient to be able to change the size of the -array without breaking other parts of the program. - -This program prints out a text string one character at a time. Try -changing the text phrase:: - - char myStr[] = "this is a test"; - int i; - - void setup() { - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop() { - for (i = 0; i < sizeof(myStr) - 1; i++) { - Serial.print(i, DEC); - Serial.print(" = "); - Serial.println(myStr[i], BYTE); - } - } - - -Note that ``sizeof`` returns the total number of bytes. So for larger -variable types such as ``int``, the :ref:`for loop ` -would look something like this:: - - for (i = 0; i < (sizeof(myInts)/sizeof(int)) - 1; i++) { - // do something with myInts[i] - } - -.. rubric:: Footnotes - -.. [#fcharsize] Technically (and pedantically) speaking, ``sizeof`` - returns a multiple of the number of bits a ``char`` occupies in - memory. However, on the Maple (this goes for most C++ - implementations), a ``char`` occupies 8 bits = 1 byte. All the C++ - standard guarantees, however, is that a ``char`` occupies at - *least* 8 bits. - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt - diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst deleted file mode 100644 index c918d50..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sq.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-sq: - -sq(a) -===== - -Description ------------ - -(Macro) computes the square of a number. - -Parameters ----------- - -**a**: the number. - -Returns -------- - -**a** squared (**a** × **a**). - -Warning -------- - -Because of the way ``sq()`` is implemented, avoid using other -functions or causing side effects inside the parentheses, as it may -lead to incorrect results:: - - b = sq(a++); // avoid this - yields incorrect results - - b = sq(a); // use this instead - - a++; // keep other operations outside sq() - - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -Maple's implementation of ``sq()`` is compatible with Arduino. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst b/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f93908e..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/sqrt.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-sqrt: - -sqrt() -====== - -Calculates the square root of a number. - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: sqrt - -Arduino Compatibility ---------------------- - -The Maple versino of ``sqrt()`` is compatible with Arduino. - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`pow ` -- :ref:`sq ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst b/docs/source/arduino/static.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 01f3dbf..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/static.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,57 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-static: - -Static -====== - -The ``static`` keyword can be used to create variables that are -visible to only one function. However, unlike local variables that get -created and destroyed every time a function is called, ``static`` -variables persist beyond the function call, preserving their data -between function calls. - -Variables declared as ``static`` will only be created and initialized -the first time a function is called. - -.. note:: This is only one use of the ``static`` keyword in C++. It - has some other important uses that are not documented here; consult - a reliable C++ reference for details. - -Example -------- - -One use case for ``static`` variables is implementing counters that -last longer than the functions which need them, but shouldn't be -shared to other functions. Here's an example:: - - void setup() { - SerialUSB.begin(); - } - - void loop() { - int reading; - if (timeToReadSensors()) { - reading = readSensors(); - } - // do something with reading - } - - int readSensors() { - static int numSensorReadings = 0; - numSensorReadings++; - if (numSensorReadings % 100 == 0) { - SerialUSB.print("just got to another 100 sensor readings"); - } - return analogRead(...); - } - -In this example, the static variable ``numSensorReadings`` is -initialized to zero the first time ``readSensors()`` is called, and -then incremented, so it starts out at one. Subsequent calls to -``readSensors()`` won't reset ``numSensorReadings`` to zero, because -it was declared ``static``. Thus, ``numSensorReadings`` is a count of -the number of times that ``readSensors()`` has been called. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/string.rst b/docs/source/arduino/string.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 528e7de..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/string.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,131 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-string: - -Strings -======= - -Description ------------ - -Text strings can be represented in two ways. You can - -1. Use the :ref:`String ` data type, which is -part of the core as of version 0.0.9, or - -2. You can make a string out of an array of type :ref:`char -` and null-terminate it. - -This page describes the second method. - -Examples --------- - -All of the following are valid declarations for strings:: - - char str1[15]; - char str2[6] = {'m', 'a', 'p', 'l', 'e'}; - char str3[6] = {'m', 'a', 'p', 'l', 'e', '\0'}; - char str4[ ] = "maple"; - char str5[6] = "maple"; - char str6[15] = "maple"; - -As you can see, there are several methods available for declaring and -initializing strings: - -- Declare an array of ``char`` without initializing it, as with ``str1``. - -- Declare an array of ``char`` (with one extra ``char``) and the - compiler will add the required null character, as with ``str2``. - -- Explicitly add the null character (``'\0'``), as with ``str3``. - -- Initialize with a string constant in quotation marks (``"..."``); - the compiler will size the array to fit the string constant and a - terminating null character (``str4``). - -- Initialize the array with an explicit size and string constant, - (``str5``). - -- Initialize the array, leaving extra space for a larger string - (``str6``). - -Null Termination ----------------- - -Generally, strings are terminated with a null character (`ASCII -`_ code 0). This allows functions -(like ``SerialUSB.print()``) to tell where the end of a string is. -Otherwise, they would continue reading subsequent bytes of memory that -aren't actually part of the string. - -This means that your string needs to have space for one more character -than the text you want it to contain. That is why ``str2`` and -``str5`` need to be six characters, even though "maple" is only five --- the last position is automatically filled with a NULL -character. ``str4`` will be automatically sized to six characters, one -for the extra null. In the case of ``str3``, we've explicitly included -the null character (written ``'\0'``) ourselves. - -Note that it's possible to have a string without a final null -character (e.g. if you had specified the length of ``str2`` as five -instead of six). This will break most functions that use strings, so -you shouldn't do it intentionally. If you notice something behaving -strangely (operating on characters not in the string), however, this -could be the problem. - -Single quotes or double quotes? -------------------------------- - -Strings are always defined inside double quotes (``"Abc"``) and -characters are always defined inside single quotes (``'A'``). - -Wrapping long strings ---------------------- - -You can wrap long strings like this:: - - char myString[] = "This is the first line" - " this is the second line" - " etcetera"; - -Arrays of Strings ------------------ - -It is often convenient, when working with large amounts of text, -such as a project with an LCD display, to setup an array of -strings. Because strings themselves are arrays, this is in actually -an example of a two-dimensional array. - -In the code below, the asterisk after the datatype char ``char *`` -indicates that this is an array of "pointers". All array names are -actually pointers, so this is required to make an array of arrays. -Pointers are one of the more esoteric parts of C for beginners to -understand, but it isn't necessary to understand pointers in detail to -use them effectively here:: - - char* myStrings[] = {"This is string 1", "This is string 2", - "This is string 3", "This is string 4", - "This is string 5", "This is string 6"}; - - void setup() { - SerialUSB.begin(); - } - - void loop() { - for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++) { - SerialUSB.println(myStrings[i]); - delay(500); - } - } - - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`array ` -- :ref:`__attribute__ ` -- :ref:`Variables ` - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst b/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst deleted file mode 100644 index ce508e7..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/stringclass.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-stringclass: - -String Class -============ - -Stub. - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst b/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1844266..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/stringobject.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,91 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-stringobject: - -String -====== - -Description ------------ - -The String class, part of the core as of version 0019, allows you -to use and manipulate strings of text in more complex ways than -`character arrays `_ do. You -can concatenate Strings, append to them, search for and replace -substrings, and more. It takes more memory than a simple character -array, but it is also more useful. - - - -For reference, character arrays are referred to as strings with a -small s, and instances of the String class are referred to as -Strings with a capital S. Note that constant strings, specified in -"double quotes" are treated as char arrays, not instances of the -String class. - - - -Functions ---------- - - -- `String `_\ () -- `charAt `_\ () -- `compareTo `_\ () -- `concat `_\ () -- `endsWith `_\ () -- `equals `_\ () -- `equalsIgnoreCase `_\ () -- `getBytes `_\ () -- `indexOf `_\ () -- `lastIndexOf `_\ () -- `length `_\ () -- `replace `_\ () -- `setCharAt `_\ () -- `startsWith `_\ () -- `substring `_\ () -- `toCharArray `_\ () -- `toLowerCase `_\ () -- `toUpperCase `_\ () -- `trim `_\ () - - - -Operators ---------- - - -- `[] (element access) `_ -- `+ (concatenation) `_ -- `== (comparison) `_ - - - -Examples --------- - - -- `StringConstructors `_ -- `StringAdditionOperator `_ -- `StringIndexOf `_ -- `StringAppendOperator `_ -- `StringLengthTrim `_ -- `StringCaseChanges `_ -- `StringReplace `_ -- `StringCharacters `_ -- `StringStartsWithEndsWith `_ -- `StringComparisonOperators `_ -- `StringSubstring `_ - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `string `_: character - arrays -- `Variable Declaration `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst b/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 9f66d0a..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/switchcase.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,117 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-switchcase: - -switch / case statements -======================== - -Like :ref:`if/else ` blocks, A ``switch`` statement -controls program flow by allowing you to specify different code that -should be executed under various cases. - -The general syntax looks like this:: - - switch (var) { - case val1: - // statements - break; - case val2: - // statements - break; - ... - default: - // statements - } - -Where ``var`` is a variable whose value to investigate, and the -``val1``, ``val2`` after each ``case`` are constant values that -``var`` might be. - - -Description ------------ - -A ``switch`` statement compares the value of a variable to the values -specified in ``case`` statements. When a ``case`` statement is found -whose value matches that of the variable, the code in that case -statement is run. - -Here's a more concrete example:: - - switch (var) { - case 1: - doThing1(); - break; - case 2: - doThing2(); - break; - } - afterTheSwitch(); - -In the above example, if ``var == 1``, then the code beginning on the -line after ``case 1:`` gets executed. That is, if ``var`` is one, -``doThing1()`` gets called first, and then the ``break`` statement -gets executed. - -The ``break`` keyword exits the ``switch`` statement, and is typically -used at the end of each ``case``. Since there is a ``break`` at the -end of ``case 1:``, the ``switch`` statement gets exited, and the next -line to be run is the one which calls ``afterTheSwitch()``. - -Without a ``break``, the ``switch`` statement will continue executing -the following ``case`` expressions ("falling-through") until a -``break`` (or the end of the switch statement) is reached. Let's -pretend the ``switch`` looked like this instead:: - - switch (var) { - case 1: - doThing1(); - // no break statement anymore - case 2: - doThing2(); - break; - } - afterTheSwitch(); - -Now, if ``var`` is one, ``doThing1()`` gets executed like before. -However, without a ``break``, the code would continue to be executed -line-by-line, so ``doThing2()`` would be called next. At this point, -a ``break`` has been reached, so the program continues by calling -``afterTheSwitch()``. This is usually not what you want, which is why -each ``case`` usually has a ``break`` at the end. - -Writing "``default:``" instead of a ``case`` statement allows you to -specify what to do if none of the ``case`` statements matches. Having -a ``default`` is optional (you can leave it out), but if you have one, -it must appear after all of the ``case`` statements. Let's add a -``default`` to the ``switch`` we've been discussing:: - - switch (var) { - case 1: - doThing1(); - break; - case 2: - doThing2(); - break; - default: - doSomethingElse(); - } - afterTheSwitch(); - -If ``var`` is one, then ``doThing1()`` gets called. If ``var`` is -two, ``doThing2()`` gets called. If ``var`` is anything else, -``doSomethingElse()`` gets called. As stated above, a ``default`` is -optional. If you're missing one and none of the ``case`` statements -match, the ``switch`` does nothing at all, as if it wasn't there. - -``switch`` statements are often used with an ``enum`` value as the -variable to compare. In this case, you can write down all of the -values the ``enum`` takes as ``case`` statements, and be sure you've -covered all the possibilities. - -See also: ---------- - -- :ref:`if...else ` - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst b/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst deleted file mode 100644 index f17ffcc..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/tan.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-tan: - -tan(rad) -======== - -Description ------------ - -Calculates the tangent of an angle (in radians). The result will be -between negative infinity and infinity. - - - -Parameters ----------- - -rad: the angle in radians (*float*) - - - -Returns -------- - -The tangent of the angle (*double*) - - - -See also --------- - - -- `sin `_\ () -- `cos `_\ () -- `float `_ -- `double `_ - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst b/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 8252804..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/tone.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,81 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-tone: - -tone() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Generates a square wave of the specified frequency (and 50% duty -cycle) on a pin. A duration can be specified, otherwise the wave -continues until a call to -`noTone `_\ (). The pin can be -connected to a piezo buzzer or other speaker to play tones. - - - -Only one tone can be generated at a time. If a tone is already -playing on a different pin, the call to tone() will have no effect. -If the tone is playing on the same pin, the call will set its -frequency. - - - -Use of the tone() function will interfere with PWM output on pins 3 -and 11 (on boards other than the Mega). - - - -**NOTE:** if you want to play different pitches on multiple pins, -you need to call noTone() on one pin before calling tone() on the -next pin. - - - -Syntax ------- - -tone(pin, frequency) -tone(pin, frequency, duration) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -pin: the pin on which to generate the tone - - - -frequency: the frequency of the tone in hertz - - - -duration: the duration of the tone in milliseconds (optional) - - - -Returns -------- - -nothing - - - -See also --------- - - -- `noTone `_\ () -- `analogWrite `_\ () -- `Tutorial:Tone `_ -- `Tutorial:Pitch follower `_ -- `Tutorial:Simple Keyboard `_ -- `Tutorial: multiple tones `_ - - -- `Tutorial: PWM `_ - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 5c26d17..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedchar.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-unsignedchar: - -unsigned char -============= - -Description ------------ - -An unsigned data type that occupies 1 byte of memory. Same as the -`byte `_ datatype. - - - -The unsigned char datatype encodes numbers from 0 to 255. - - - -For consistency of Arduino programming style, the *byte* data type -is to be preferred. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned char myChar = 240; - - - -See also --------- - - -- `byte `_ -- `int `_ -- `array `_ -- `Serial.println `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 11412b1..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedint.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,80 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-unsignedint: - -unsigned int -============ - -Description ------------ - -Unsigned ints (unsigned integers) are the same as ints in that they -store a 2 byte value. Instead of storing negative numbers however -they only store positive values, yielding a useful range of 0 to -65,535 (2^16) - 1). - - - -The difference between unsigned ints and (signed) ints, lies in the -way the highest bit, sometimes refered to as the "sign" bit, is -interpreted. In the Arduino int type (which is signed), if the high -bit is a "1", the number is interpreted as a negative number, and -the other 15 bits are interpreted with -`2's complement math. `_ - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned int ledPin = 13; - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - unsigned int var = val; - - - - -- var - your unsigned int variable name -- val - the value you assign to that variable - - - -Coding Tip ----------- - -When variables are made to exceed their maximum capacity they "roll -over" back to their minimum capacitiy, note that this happens in -both directions - - - -:: - - unsigned int x - x = 0; - x = x - 1; // x now contains 65535 - rolls over in neg direction - x = x + 1; // x now contains 0 - rolls over - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `byte `_ -- `int `_ -- `long `_ -- `unsigned long `_ -- `Variable Declaration `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst b/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst deleted file mode 100644 index c493c40..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/unsignedlong.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,66 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-unsignedlong: - -unsigned long -============= - -Description ------------ - -Unsigned long variables are extended size variables for number -storage, and store 32 bits (4 bytes). Unlike standard longs -unsigned longs won't store negative numbers, making their range -from 0 to 4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 1). - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - unsigned long time; - - void setup() - { - Serial.begin(9600); - } - - void loop() - { - Serial.print("Time: "); - time = millis(); - //prints time since program started - Serial.println(time); - // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data - delay(1000); - } - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - unsigned long var = val; - - - - -- var - your long variable name -- val - the value you assign to that variable - - - -See Also --------- - - -- `byte `_ -- `int `_ -- `unsigned int `_ -- `long `_ -- `Variable Declaration `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst b/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0720041..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/variables.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,191 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _arduino-variables: - -Variables ---------- - -A variable is a way of naming and storing a value for later use by -the program, such as data from a sensor or an intermediate value -used in a calculation. - -.. _arduino-variables-declaring: - -Declaring Variables -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Before they are used, all variables have to be declared. Declaring -a variable means defining its type, and optionally, setting an -initial value (initializing the variable). Variables do not have to -be initialized (assigned a value) when they are declared, but it is -often useful. - - - -:: - - int inputVariable1; - int inputVariable2 = 0; // both are correct - - - -Programmers should consider the size of the numbers they wish to -store in choosing variable types. Variables will -`roll over <#VariableRollover>`_ when the value stored exceeds the -space assigned to store it. See below for an example. - -.. _arduino-variables-scope: - -Variable Scope -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Another important choice that programmers face is where to declare -variables. The specific place that variables are declared -influences how various functions in a program will *see* the -variable. This is called variable -`scope `_. - -.. _arduino-variables-initializing: - -Initializing Variables -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Variables may be *initialized* (assigned a starting value) when -they are declared or not. It is always good programming practice -however to double check that a variable has valid data in it, -before it is accessed for some other purpose. - - - -Example: - -:: - - int calibrationVal = 17; // declare calibrationVal and set initial value - -.. _arduino-variables-rollover: - -Variable Rollover -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -When variables are made to exceed their maximum capacity they "roll -over" back to their minimum capacity, note that this happens in -both directions. - - - -:: - - int x - x = -32,768; - x = x - 1; // x now contains 32,767 - rolls over in neg. direction - - - -:: - - x = 32,767; - x = x + 1; // x now contains -32,768 - rolls over - - - -Using Variables -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Once variables have been declared, they are used by setting the -variable equal to the value one wishes to store with the -`assignment operator `_ -(single equal sign). The assignment operator tells the program to -put whatever is on the right side of the equal sign into the -variable on the left side. - - - -:: - - inputVariable1 = 7; // sets the variable named inputVariable1 to 7 - inputVariable2 = analogRead(2); // sets the variable named inputVariable2 to the - // (digitized) input voltage read from analog pin #2 - - - -Examples -^^^^^^^^ - -:: - - int lightSensVal; - char currentLetter; - unsigned long speedOfLight = 186000UL; - char errorMessage = {"choose another option"}; // see string - - - -Once a variable has been set (assigned a value), you can test its -value to see if it meets certain conditions, or you can use its -value directly. For instance, the following code tests whether the -inputVariable2 is less than 100, then sets a delay based on -inputVariable2 which is a minimum of 100: - - - -:: - - if (inputVariable2 < 100) - { - inputVariable2 = 100; - } - - delay(inputVariable2); - - - -This example shows all three useful operations with variables. It -tests the variable ( ``if (inputVariable2 < 100)`` ), it sets the -variable if it passes the test ( ``inputVariable2 = 100`` ), and it -uses the value of the variable as an input parameter to the delay() -function (``delay(inputVariable2)`` ) - - - -**Style Note:** You should give your variables descriptive names, -so as to make your code more readable. Variable names like -**tiltSensor** or **pushButton** help you (and anyone else reading -your code) understand what the variable represents. Variable names -like **var** or **value**, on the other hand, do little to make -your code readable. - - - -You can name a variable any word that is not already one of the -`keywords `_`? `_ -in Arduino. Avoid beginning variable names with numeral -characters. - - - -Some variable types -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - - -- `char `_ -- `byte `_ -- `int `_ -- `unsigned int `_ -- `long `_ -- `unsigned long `_ -- `float `_ -- `double `_ - - - -Variable Scope -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - - -- `Variable Scope `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst b/docs/source/arduino/void.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 82f9606..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/void.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-void: - -void -==== - -The void keyword is used only in function declarations. It -indicates that the function is expected to return no information to -the function from which it was called. - - - -Example: --------- - -:: - - // actions are performed in the functions "setup" and "loop" - // but no information is reported to the larger program - - void setup() - { - // ... - } - - void loop() - { - // ... - } - - - - -See also --------- - -`function declaration `_ - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst b/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst deleted file mode 100644 index fc02081..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/volatile.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,73 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-volatile: - -volatile keyword -================ - -volatile is a keyword known as a variable *qualifier*, it is -usually used before the datatype of a variable, to modify the way -in which the compiler and subsequent program treats the variable. - - - -Declaring a variable volatile is a directive to the compiler. The -compiler is software which translates your C/C++ code into the -machine code, which are the real instructions for the Atmega chip -in the Arduino. - - - -Specifically, it directs the compiler to load the variable from RAM -and not from a storage register, which is a temporary memory -location where program variables are stored and manipulated. Under -certain conditions, the value for a variable stored in registers -can be inaccurate. - - - -A variable should be declared volatile whenever its value can be -changed by something beyond the control of the code section in -which it appears, such as a concurrently executing thread. In the -Arduino, the only place that this is likely to occur is in sections -of code associated with interrupts, called an interrupt service -routine. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - // toggles LED when interrupt pin changes state - - int pin = 13; - volatile int state = LOW; - - void setup() - { - pinMode(pin, OUTPUT); - attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); - } - - void loop() - { - digitalWrite(pin, state); - } - - void blink() - { - state = !state; - } - - - -See also --------- - - -- `AttachInterrupt `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/while.rst b/docs/source/arduino/while.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e8167bd..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/while.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-while: - -while Loops -=========== - -Description ------------ - -**while** loops will loop continuously, and infinitely, until the -expression inside the parenthesis, () becomes false. Something must -change the tested variable, or the **while** loop will never exit. -This could be in your code, such as an incremented variable, or an -external condition, such as testing a sensor. - - - -Syntax ------- - -:: - - while(expression){ - // statement(s) - } - - - -Parameters ----------- - -expression - a (boolean) C statement that evaluates to true or -false - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - var = 0; - while(var < 200){ - // do something repetitive 200 times - var++; - } - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/word.rst b/docs/source/arduino/word.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 32506b8..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/word.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-word: - -word -==== - -Description ------------ - -A word stores a 16-bit unsigned number, from 0 to 65535. Same as an -unsigned int. - - - -Example -------- - -:: - - word w = 10000; - - - -See also --------- - - -- `byte `_ -- `word `_\ () - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst b/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1e854ba..0000000 --- a/docs/source/arduino/wordcast.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,54 +0,0 @@ -.. _arduino-wordcast: - -word() -====== - -Description ------------ - -Convert a value to the -`word `_ data type or create a -word from two bytes. - - - -Syntax ------- - -word(x) -word(h, l) - - - -Parameters ----------- - -x: a value of any type - - - -h: the high-order (leftmost) byte of the word - - - -l: the low-order (rightmost) byte of the word - - - -Returns -------- - -word - - - -See also --------- - - -- `word `_ - - - - -.. include:: cc-attribution.txt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/source/bootloader.rst b/docs/source/bootloader.rst index 46c2cf0..6cb9ece 100644 --- a/docs/source/bootloader.rst +++ b/docs/source/bootloader.rst @@ -226,12 +226,12 @@ A bootloader packet is composed of a sequence of fields, as follows. - 1 - 0--0xFF - Queries and responses must have the same sequence number; rolls - over to 0 after 0xFF. + over to 0 after 0xFF * - MESSAGE_SIZE - 2 - 0--0xFFFF - - Size of message body, currently limited to a 1024B maximum + - Size of message body, currently limited to a 1024B=1KB maximum * - TOKEN - 1 @@ -241,14 +241,32 @@ A bootloader packet is composed of a sequence of fields, as follows. * - MESSAGE_BODY - Variable, determined by MESSAGE_SIZE field - Command query or response - - See next section + - See :ref:`next section ` * - CHECKSUM - 4 - XOR of all other 32-bit words in packet - - Words are checksummed little-endian; however, like all - multi-byte fields, the CHECKSUM is transmitted between PC and - device in network (big-endian) order. + - See :ref:`below ` + +.. _bootloader-checksum: + +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. note:: When computing the checksum, the words in a packet are + interpreted big-endian (as if the packet were a sequence of 32-bit, + big-endian unsigned integers). If the end of the MESSAGE_BODY is + not aligned with a four-byte boundary, then the checksum will treat + it as if it was padded with zero bytes to a four-byte boundary. + + As a concrete example, an entire GET_INFO query (see :ref:`below + `), including the packet structure, is + comprised of the byte sequence :: + + {0x1B, 0x7F, 0x00, 0x01, 0x7F, 0x00, 0x64, 0x7F, 0x00, 0x01} + + The SEQUENCE_NUM of this query is 0x7F. + +.. highlight:: sh .. _bootloader-commands: @@ -256,15 +274,16 @@ Commands ^^^^^^^^ The packet structure overhead is for reliability. The actual queries -and responses are transacted inside of the message body. Following in -the footsteps of the STK-500 protocol, each query or response begins -with the single byte CMD field. For each query, the resultant response -must begin with the same CMD byte. For each type of CMD, the structure -of queries and responses is of fixed size. Following STK-500, fields -longer than 1 byte are transmitted MSB first (big-endian). However, -READ and WRITE commands operate byte-wise (not word-wise); it is up to -the host PC to ensure that alignment and ordering issues are handled -appropriately. +and responses are transacted inside of the message body. Following +the STK-500 protocol, each query or response begins with the single +byte command field. For each query, the resultant response must begin +with the same CMD byte. For each type of command, the structure of +queries and responses is of fixed size. + +Also following STK-500, fields longer than 1 byte are transmitted MSB +first (big-endian). However, READ and WRITE commands operate byte-wise +(not word-wise); it is up to the host PC to ensure that alignment and +ordering issues are handled appropriately. .. _bootloader-get-info: @@ -447,7 +466,7 @@ READ_BYTES query: * - LENGTH - 2 - Maximum number of bytes to read (currently, this may be at most - 512). Must be a multiple of 4. + 1024 = 1KB). Must be a multiple of 4. READ_BYTES response: diff --git a/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst b/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst index 39828e3..79492ef 100644 --- a/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst +++ b/docs/source/external-interrupts.rst @@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ The following table shows which pins can be used on which lines. .. note:: - You should set the :ref:`pin mode ` of your + You should set the :ref:`pin mode ` of your desired pin to an input mode (e.g ``INPUT`` or ``INPUT_FLOATING``, ``INPUT_PULLUP``, ``INPUT_PULLDOWN``). diff --git a/docs/source/foo.rst b/docs/source/foo.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 1da021c..0000000 --- a/docs/source/foo.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,122 +0,0 @@ -.. _foo: - -================================== -[temporary] Converted Arduino docs -================================== - -This is the index of the imported Arduino docs. - -Finished: - -.. toctree:: - :maxdepth: 1 - - abs() - analogRead() - pinMode() - Arithmetic - Arrays - Assignment - attachInterrupt() - bit() - bitClear() - bitRead() - bitSet() - arduino/bitshift - arduino/analogwrite - arduino/bitwisemath - arduino/bitwisecompound - bitWrite() - arduino/boolean - arduino/booleanvariables - arduino/braces - arduino/break - arduino/byte - arduino/bytecast - arduino/char - arduino/charcast - arduino/comments - arduino/const - constrain() - arduino/continue - cos() - #define - arduino/delay - arduino/delaymicroseconds - arduino/detachinterrupt - arduino/digitalread - arduino/double - arduino/doublecast - arduino/dowhile - arduino/else - arduino/float - arduino/floatcast - arduino/for - arduino/goto - arduino/highbyte - arduino/if - arduino/comparison - arduino/include - arduino/increment - arduino/arithmeticcompound - arduino/int - arduino/intcast - arduino/long - arduino/longcast - arduino/loop - arduino/max - arduino/min - arduino/modulo - arduino/pointer - arduino/pow - arduino/return - arduino/scope - arduino/semicolon - arduino/sin - arduino/sizeof - arduino/sqrt - arduino/sq - arduino/static - arduino/string - -Unfinished; straightforward to convert: - -.. toctree:: - :maxdepth: 1 - - arduino/switchcase - arduino/tan - arduino/unsignedchar - arduino/unsignedint - arduino/unsignedlong - arduino/variables - arduino/void - arduino/volatile - arduino/while - -Unfinished, requires libmaple/Arduino knowledge: - -.. toctree:: - :maxdepth: 1 - - arduino/word - arduino/wordcast - arduino/constants - arduino/digitalwrite - arduino/notone - arduino/serial - arduino/interrupts - analogWrite() - arduino/nointerrupts - arduino/pulsein - arduino/stringobject - arduino/tone - arduino/random - arduino/randomseed - arduino/setup - arduino/map - arduino/shiftout - arduino/micros - arduino/millis - arduino/lowbyte - arduino/stringclass diff --git a/docs/source/ide.rst b/docs/source/ide.rst index c8dbd74..00dcf03 100644 --- a/docs/source/ide.rst +++ b/docs/source/ide.rst @@ -5,7 +5,19 @@ Maple IDE Documentation Stub. +.. TODO stub sections for all the other buttons, etc. + .. _ide-serial-monitor: Serial Monitor -------------- + +.. _ide-verify: + +Verify +------ + +.. _ide-upload: + +Upload +------ diff --git a/docs/source/index.rst b/docs/source/index.rst index ac91c4f..32fa28f 100644 --- a/docs/source/index.rst +++ b/docs/source/index.rst @@ -3,17 +3,22 @@ Maple Documentation Index ========================= -Welcome! This is the documentation index for programming your Maple. -It contains tutorials, quickstarts, and technical documentation. +Welcome! This is the Maple documentation index. It contains +tutorials, quickstarts, and technical documentation. If you just got a new Maple, you probably want to begin with the :ref:`quickstart `. You can then move on to reading about the programming language you use with the Maple at the -:ref:`language reference `. Good luck, and have fun! +:ref:`language reference `. + +If you're having problems, you might want to visit the +:ref:`troubleshooting ` and :ref:`known problems +` pages. Finally, you can always hit the `forums +`_ to ask questions to the LeafLabs team +and other Maple users. Good luck, and have fun! Table of contents: -.. TODO: be more Pythonic with a "parts of the documentation" thing .. toctree:: :maxdepth: 1 @@ -29,8 +34,7 @@ Table of contents: External Interrupts Bootloader Known Problems - [Temporary] Arduino docs TOC - [Temporary] Wirish-only docs TOC + Language Reference Index Indices and tables ================== diff --git a/docs/source/lang/abs.rst b/docs/source/lang/abs.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed95e6f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/abs.rst @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +.. _lang-abs: + +abs(x) +====== + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) computes the absolute value of a number. + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: the number. + +Returns +------- + +**x**: if **x** is greater than or equal to 0. + +**-x**: if **x** is less than 0. + +Warning +------- + +Because of the way ``abs()`` is implemented, avoid using other +functions or causing side effects inside the parentheses, as it may +lead to incorrect results:: + + abs(a++); // avoid this - yields incorrect results + + abs(a); // use this instead - + a++; // keep other operations outside abs() + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Maple's implementation of ``abs()`` is compatible with Arduino. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/analogread.rst b/docs/source/lang/analogread.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0c93650 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/analogread.rst @@ -0,0 +1,152 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-analogread: + +analogRead() +============ + +Used to perform ADC conversion. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: analogRead + +Discussion +---------- + +Reads the value from the specified analog pin. The Maple board +contains a 16-channel, 12-bit analog to digital converter. This means +that it will map input voltages between 0 and 3.3 volts into integer +values between 0 and 4095. This yields a resolution between readings +of 3.3V / 4096 units, or 0.8 millivolts. However, a number of factors +interfere with getting full accuracy and precision. For more +information, see :ref:`adc`. + +Before calling analogRead() on a pin, that pin must first be +configured for analog input, using :ref:`lang-pinMode` (you only +have to do this once, so it's usually done in :ref:`lang-setup`\ ). + +It takes about 0.8 microseconds (.0000008 seconds) to read an analog +input, so the maximum sample rate using this function is approximately +1.3 million samples per second\ [#fsamp]_. + + +Parameter Discussion +-------------------- + +The pin parameter is the number of the analog input pin to read from. +Header pins on the Maple with ADC functionality (marked as "AIN" on +the silkscreen) are: + + 0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28 + +Note that pins 3, 27, and 28 are not marked AIN on the silkscreen +for Maple revisions through Rev 5, however, they **do work** as +analog input pins. + +Note +---- + +If the analog input pin is not connected to anything, the value +returned by analogRead() will fluctuate based on a number of factors +(e.g. the values of the other analog inputs, how close your hand is to +the board, etc.) in a seemingly random way. + + +Example +------- + + :: + + + int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer wiper (middle terminal) connected + // to analog pin 3. outside leads to ground and +3.3V + int val = 0; // variable to store the value read + + void setup() { + pinMode(analogPin, INPUT_ANALOG); // set up pin for analog input + SerialUSB.begin(); // set up usb virtual COM port + } + + void loop() { + val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin + SerialUSB.println(val); // print the value, for debugging with + // a serial monitor + } + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Arduino board contains a 6 channel (8 channels on the Mini and +Nano, 16 on the Mega), 10-bit analog to digital converter with an +input voltage range of 0V--5V. This means that it will map input +voltages between 0 and 5 volts (which is **larger** than Maple's range +of 0V-3.3V) into integer values between 0 and 1023 (which is +**smaller** than the Maple's range of 0--4095). + +This yields a theoretical resolution between readings of: 5 volts / +1024 units or .0049 volts (4.9 mV) per unit on Arduino boards, which +is larger, and thus less precise, than Maple's 0.0008 volts (0.8 mV). + +If your program expects Arduino-style 10-bit ADC, you can :ref:`right +shift ` the value of a Maple readout by 2, like so:: + + // right shift means that the result will be between 0 and 1023; + // be aware that you're losing a lot of precision if you do this + int adc_reading = analogRead(pin) >> 2; + +On the Arduino, the input range and resolution can be changed using +their implementation of `analogReference() +`_\ . Because of the +way its hardware (as of Rev 5) was designed, it's not possible to +implement analogReference on the Maple, so this function doesn't +exist. If your inputs lie in a different voltage range than 0V--3.3V, +you'll need to bring them into that range before using analogRead. +Some basic tools to accomplish this are `resistor dividers +`_ and `Zener diodes +`_\ +. However, opamps and other powered components can also be used if +greater precision is required. + +Finally, On the Arduino, it takes significantly longer to read analog +input: about 100 microseconds (0.0001 s), so the maximum reading rate +is 10,000 times a second. + + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`ADC note ` +- `(Arduino) Tutorial: Analog Input Pins `_ + + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#fsamp] This is based on the current configuration of a 55.5 cycle + sample time, at 72 MHz. However, the minimum sample time *possible* + is 1.5 cycles, leading to a theoretical maximum of approximately 48 + million samples per second (of course, doing anything with the + readings also consumes cycles, so this maximum can't be reached in + practice). + + See the `STM32 Reference Manual `_, §§11.12.4--5 + (pp. 225--226), for more information on the low-level bit twiddling + currently necessary to change the sample time. For examples of how + the ADCs are configured in libmaple, see `adc.h + `_ + and `adc.c + `_\ + . Be aware that changing the sample time has important + consequences related to the impedance of the device connected to + the input pin. If you want to make changes, as a minimum, you + should first read ST's application notes on `ADC modes + `_ and `ADC oversampling + `_. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/analogwrite.rst b/docs/source/lang/analogwrite.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d30d4d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/analogwrite.rst @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-analogwrite: + +analogWrite() +============= + +.. note:: + + On the Maple, calling analogWrite() is the same as calling + :ref:`lang-pwmwrite`\ ; see that function's documentation for more + information. + + This is because PWM is not true analog output (i.e., is not the + output of a `DAC + `_\ ), so + the function is badly named. For instance, **analogWrite() has + absolutely nothing to do with** :ref:`lang-analogread`\ , which is + potentially confusing. + + The alias of analogWrite() to pwmWrite() is provided (sigh) for the + sake of compatibility with Arduino, but we recommend using + :ref:`lang-pwmwrite` when writing new software, for clarity. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +There are a few important differences between Arduino's `analogWrite() +`_ and Maple's +:ref:`lang-pwmwrite` that you should keep in mind. In each case, we +have some recommendations you can use to help converting from Arduino +to Maple. + +Difference 1: Duty cycle range is different +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The first and most important difference is that the largest possible +value for the duty cycle is much bigger on the Maple. Using Arduino's +analogWrite(), the duty cycle ranges between 0--255 (always off -- +always on)\ [#fbytemax]_\ . Using Maple's pwmWrite(), the duty cycle +ranges from 0--65,535 by default\ [#fuint16max]_\ . + +This is a good thing! The greater range of values on the Maple gives +you much more precise control over the duty cycle of your PWM output. + +If you're porting code from the Arduino and want a quick-and-dirty +fix, one solution is to :ref:`map ` the argument to +analogWrite into the right range:: + + // Arduino code: + analogWrite(pin, duty); + + // Becomes Maple code: + analogWrite(pin, map(duty, 0, 255, 0, 65535)); + +This will convert values in the range 0-255 to values in the range +0--65,635, which is the correct default range for all of the timers +which control PWM output. See the :ref:`timers reference ` +for more information. + +Another fix is to consult the :ref:`pin mapping mega table +` to find the timer which controls PWM on the +pin you're using, then set that Timer's overflow to 255. Subsequent +calls to analogWrite() should work as on the Arduino (with the same +loss of precision). Note, however, that that affects the overflow for +the **entire timer**, so other code relying on that timer (such as any +:ref:`interrupts ` the timer controls) will +likely need to be modified as well. + +Difference 2: You must use pinMode() to set up PWM +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The second difference is that on the Maple, you **must** set up the pin +for PWM output using :ref:`lang-pinmode`\ , with argument ``PWM``. +This should just be one extra line of code in your +:ref:`lang-setup` function. Example:: + + void setup() { + // set up pin 9 for PWM + pinMode(9, PWM); + } + +This also means that you can't later call :ref:`lang-digitalread` +or :ref:`lang-digitalwrite` on that pin (unless some time in +between, you use pinMode() to reconfigure that pin for ``INPUT`` or +``OUTPUT``; see the :ref:`lang-pinmode` page for more information). + +Difference 3: No PWM on pin 10 +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +On the Maple, the pins which support PWM are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, +9, 11, 12, and 14, or twelve pins in total. That is at least as +*many* PWM pins as any Arduino board, but there are differences in +*which* pins support it. + +* On **most Arduino boards** (those with the ATmega168 or ATmega328; + this includes the **Arduino Uno**), this function works on pins 3, + 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11, or six pins total. Note that these boards + support PWM on pin 10, while Maple does not. + +* On the **Arduino Mega**, PWM works on pins 2 through 13, or twelve pins + total. Note that this board supports PWM on pins 4, 10, and 13, + while the Maple does not. Maple supports PWM on pins 0, 1, and 14, + which the Mega does not, making the total number of pins supporting + PWM equal on these boards. + +* **Older Arduino boards** with an ATmega8 only support analogWrite() on + pins 9, 10, and 11. Maple does not support PWM on pin 10. + +In all cases, Arduino boards support PWM on pin 10, unlike Maple. We +did our best to make PWM as pin-compatible as possible; however, +circuit layout constraints prevented us from achieving perfect +compatibility. + +The "safest" pins to use for PWM output are pins 9 and 11. These pins +work on any Arduino board and on Maple. The "safe" pins, which work +on most recent Arduino boards, the Arduino Mega and the Maple, are +pins 3, 5, 6, 9, and 11. Thus, if you want your project to be as +portable as possible between Maple and Arduino, we recommend using the +"safest" pins first, then the "safe" pins, as necessary. + +Difference 4: PWM frequency +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The frequency of the PWM signal (i.e., the frequency of a complete +on/off cycle) on the Arduino is approximately 490 Hz. + +On the Maple, the frequency is configurable, defaulting to about 1100 +Hz, or 1.1 KHz. This is because the PWM frequency is the frequency of +the timer which controls PWM output on the particular pin (\ +:ref:`the PWM tutorial has the details `\ ). + +If your application absolutely requires Arduino's PWM frequency (it +probably doesn't), then the steps are: + +1. Figure out which timer controls PWM output on your pin (\ :ref:`this table ` is your friend here). Let's say it's ``Timern``\ , where ``n`` is some number 1, 2, 3, or 4. + +2. Call ``Timern.setPeriod(2041)``\ . This will set the timer's period to approximately 2041 microseconds, which is a frequency of approximately 490 Hz. + +Be aware that this will change the period for the **entire timer**\ , +and will affect anything else in your program that depends on that +timer. One example is :ref:`interrupts `\ . +You've been :ref:`warned `\ . + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`Maple PWM tutorial ` + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#fbytemax] This is because the value for the duty cycle on Arduino + must fit in 1 byte of memory, and an unsigned (i.e., nonnegative) + integer with size 1 byte can hold the values between 0 and 255. + +.. [#fuint16max] This is because the value for the duty cycle on the + Maple uses 2 bytes of memory, and an unsigned (i.e., nonnegative) + integer with size 2 bytes can hold the values between 0 and 65,535. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/arithmetic.rst b/docs/source/lang/arithmetic.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9f21627 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/arithmetic.rst @@ -0,0 +1,129 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-arithmetic: + +Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, & Division +================================================= + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Description +----------- + +These operators return the sum, difference, product, or quotient +(respectively) of the two operands. The operation is conducted using +the data type of the operands, so, for example, ``9 / 4`` gives ``2`` +since 9 and 4 are :ref:`int variables `. + +This also means that the operation can overflow if the result is +larger than that which can be stored in the data type (e.g. adding 1 +to an :ref:`lang-int` with the value 2147483647 gives +-2147483648). If the operands are of different types, the "larger" +type is used for the calculation. + +.. _lang-arithmetic-typeconversion: + +.. note:: The specifics of these rules are beyond the scope of this + documentation; for more information, see `The C++ Programming + Language `_\ , by Bjarne + Stroustroup, Appendix C, especially §§C.4-C.6, or `this WikiBooks + entry on C++ type conversion + `_. + +.. note:: For more information on how computers represent integers, + see the Wikipedia page on `two's complement + `_. + +If one of the numbers (operands) are of the type **float** or of type +**double**, floating point math will be used for the +calculation. + +Examples +-------- + + :: + + y = y + 3; + x = x - 7; + i = j * 6; + r = r / 5; + + +Syntax +------ + + :: + + result = value1 + value2; + result = value1 - value2; + result = value1 * value2; + result = value1 / value2; + + +Parameters +---------- + +**value1**: any numeric variable or constant + +**value2**: any numeric variable or constant + +Programming Tips +---------------- + +- Know that :ref:`integer constants ` + default to :ref:`int `, so some constant calculations + may overflow (e.g., 200000 * 5000000 will yield a negative result). + +- Choose variable sizes that are large enough to hold the largest + results from your calculations. + +- Know at what point your variable will "roll over" and also what + happens in the other direction e.g. (0 - 1) for unsigned arithmetic, + or (0 - -2,147,483,648) for signed arithmetic. + +- For math that requires fractions, float variables may be used, but + be aware of their drawbacks: large size and slow computation speeds + (the STM32 has no floating point hardware, so all floating point + calculations have to be done in software). + +- Use cast operator, e.g. ``(int)myFloat`` to convert one variable type + to another on the fly. + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Since the STM32 processor on the Maple is a 32-bit machine, the int +type overflows at a much higher value on Maple than on Arduino. In +particular, on Maple, ints do not overflow (become negative) until +they reach 2,147,483,648; on the Arduino, they overflow at 32,767. +Because of this, programs running on Maple are much less likely to run +into overflow issues. The following table summarizes the sizes and +ranges of integer datatypes on the Maple (the ranges of long long +types are approximate): + +.. _lang-arithmetic-int-sizes: + +.. csv-table:: + :header: Datatype, Unsigned range, Signed range, Size (bytes) + :widths: 8, 12, 17, 8 + + ``char``, 0 --- 255, -128 --- 127, 1 + ``short``, "0 --- 65,535", "-32,768 --- 32,767", 2 + ``int``, "0 --- 4,294,967,295", "-2,147,483,648 --- 2,147,483,647", 4 + ``long``, "0 --- 4,294,967,295", "-2,147,483,648 --- 2,147,483,647", 4 + ``long long``, "0 --- 1.8*10\ :sup:`19`\ " (approx.), "-9.2*10\ :sup:`18` --- 9.2*10\ :sup:`18` (approx.)", 8 + + +See Also +-------- + +- The individual sizes (in bits) of various available types are + defined in `libmaple_types.h + `_\ + . + +- :ref:`sizeof `\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/arithmeticcompound.rst b/docs/source/lang/arithmeticcompound.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa0dc18 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/arithmeticcompound.rst @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-arithmeticcompound: + +Compound Arithmetic Operators (``+=`` , ``-=``, ``*=``, ``/=``) +=============================================================== + +Description +----------- + +Perform a mathematical operation on a variable with another constant +or variable. These operators are just a convenient shorthand:: + + x += y; // equivalent to the expression x = x + y; + x -= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x - y; + x *= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x * y; + x /= y; // equivalent to the expression x = x / y; + +Here is an example:: + + int x = 2; + int y = 10; + + x += 4; // x now contains 6 + x -= 3; // x now contains 3 + x *= y; // x now contains 30 + x /= 2; // x now contains 15 + x += max(20, 6); // x now contains 35 + x -= sq(5); // x now contains 15 + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: a numeric variable + +**y**: a numeric variable, number constant, or any other expression +that evaluates to a number (e.g. call to a function that returns a +number). + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`Arithmetic operators ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/array.rst b/docs/source/lang/array.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30a818f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/array.rst @@ -0,0 +1,123 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-array: + +Arrays +====== + +An array is a collection of variables that are accessed with an index +number. Arrays in the C++ programming language, in which the Maple is +programmed, can be complicated, but using simple arrays is relatively +straightforward. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Creating (Declaring) an Array +----------------------------- + +All of the methods below are valid ways to create (declare) an +array. :: + + int myInts[6]; + int myPins[] = {2, 4, 8, 3, 6}; + int mySensVals[6] = {2, 4, -8, 3, 2}; + char message[6] = "hello"; + +You can declare an array without initializing it, as with myInts. In +the line referring to myPins, we declare an array without explicitly +choosing a size. The compiler counts the elements and creates an +array of the appropriate size. + +Finally, you can both initialize and size your array, as in +mySensVals. Note that when declaring an array with elements of type +char, one more element than your initialization is required, to hold +the required `null character `_. + + +Accessing an Array +------------------ + + +.. compound:: + + Arrays are **zero indexed**; that is, referring to the array + initialization above, the first element of the array is at index 0, + hence :: + + mySensVals[0] == 2; + mySensVals[1] == 4 + + and so forth. + +It also means that in an array with ten elements, index nine is the +last element. Hence:: + + int myArray[10]={9,3,2,4,3,2,7,8,9,11}; + // myArray[9] contains 11 + // myArray[10] is invalid and contains random information (other memory address) + +For this reason, you should be careful in accessing arrays. Accessing +past the end of an array (using an index number greater than your +declared array size - 1) is reading from memory that is in use for +other purposes. Reading from these locations is probably not going to +do much except yield invalid data. Writing to random memory locations +is definitely a bad idea, and can often lead to unhappy results such +as crashes or program malfunction. This can also be a difficult bug to +track down. + +Unlike Basic or Java, the C compiler does no checking to see if array +access is within legal bounds of the array size that you have +declared. + + +To assign a value to an array +----------------------------- + :: + + mySensVals[0] = 10; + + +To retrieve a value from an array +--------------------------------- + + :: + + x = mySensVals[4]; + + +Arrays and ``for`` Loops +------------------------ + +Arrays are often manipulated inside :ref:`for loops `, where +the loop counter is used as the index for each array element. For +example, to print the elements of an array over the serial port, you +could do something like this:: + + int i; + for (i = 0; i < 5; i = i + 1) { + SerialUSB.println(myPins[i]); + } + + +Example +------- + +For a complete program that demonstrates the use of arrays, see the +Arduino `Knight Rider example +`_\ (which will run +unmodified on the Maple). + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Arrays on Maple are identical those on Arduino. + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`Storing arrays in FLASH memory ` + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/assignment.rst b/docs/source/lang/assignment.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..16f0bf4 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/assignment.rst @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-assignment: + += assignment operator (single equal sign) +========================================= + +Stores the value to the right of the equal sign in the variable to +the left of the equal sign. + +The single equal sign in the C++ programming language is called the +assignment operator. It has a different meaning than in algebra +class, where it indicated an equation or equality. The assignment +operator tells the microcontroller to evaluate whatever value or +expression is on the right side of the equal sign, and store it in +the variable to the left of the equal sign [#fgross]_. + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + int sensVal; // declare an integer variable named sensVal + senVal = analogRead(0); // store the (digitized) input voltage at analog pin 0 in SensVal + + + +Programming Tips +---------------- + +The variable on the left side of the assignment operator ( = sign ) +needs to be able to hold the value stored in it. If it is not large +enough to hold a value, the value stored in the variable will be +incorrect. + +Don't confuse the assignment operator [ = ] (single equal sign) +with the comparison operator [ == ] (double equal signs), which +evaluates whether two expressions are equal. + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Assignments on the Maple are identical to those on Arduino. + + + +See Also +-------- + + +- `if (comparison operators) `_ +- `char `_ +- `int `_ +- `long `_ + + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#fgross] Experienced C++ programmers know this to be an + oversimplification of what happens when the variable on the left + hand side is an object. See Richard Gillam's wonderful and scary + `The Anatomy of the Assignment Operator + `_ + for more information. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/attachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/lang/attachinterrupt.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b8907f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/attachinterrupt.rst @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-attachinterrupt: + +attachInterrupt() +================= + +Used to specify a function to call when an external interrupt (like an +GPIO changing from LOW to HIGH, a button getting pressed, etc.) +occurs. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: attachInterrupt + +.. doxygenenum:: ExtIntTriggerMode + +.. doxygentypedef:: voidFuncPtr + +Discussion +---------- + +Because the function will run in interrupt context, inside of it, +:ref:`lang-delay` won't work, and the value returned by +:ref:`lang-millis` will not increment. Serial data received while +in the function may be lost. You should declare as ``volatile`` any +global variables that you modify within the attached function. + +There are a few constraints you should be aware of if you're using +more than one interrupt at a time; the :ref:`external-interrupts` page +has the details. + + +Using Interrupts +---------------- + +Interrupts are useful for making things happen automatically in +microcontroller programs, and can help solve timing problems. A +good task for using an interrupt might be reading a rotary encoder, +or monitoring user input. + + +If you wanted to insure that a program always caught the pulses +from a rotary encoder, never missing a pulse, it would make it very +tricky to write a program to do anything else, because the program +would need to constantly poll the sensor lines for the encoder, in +order to catch pulses when they occurred. Other sensors have a +similar interface dynamic too, such as trying to read a sound +sensor that is trying to catch a click, or an infrared slot sensor +(photo-interrupter) trying to catch a coin drop. In all of these +situations, using an interrupt can free the microcontroller to get +some other work done while not missing the doorbell. + + +Example +------- + +:: + + int maple_led_pin = 13; + volatile int state = LOW; // must declare volatile, since it's + // modified within the blink handler + + void setup() { + pinMode(maple_led_pin, OUTPUT); + attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); + } + + void loop() { + digitalWrite(maple_led_pin, state); + } + + void blink() { + state = !state; + } + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Most Arduino boards have two external interrupts: numbers 0 (on +digital pin 2) and 1 (on digital pin 3). The Arduino Mega has an +additional four: numbers 2 (pin 21), 3 (pin 20), 4 (pin 19), and 5 +(pin 18). On the Maple, you don't have to remember which interrupt +number goes with which pin -- just tell ``attachInterrupt()`` the pin +you want. + + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`detachInterrupt ` +- :ref:`external-interrupts` + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bit.rst b/docs/source/lang/bit.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c342fdd --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bit.rst @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +.. _lang-bit: + +bit() +===== + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Computes the value of an (unsigned) integer with the specified +bit set (``bit(0)`` is 1, ``bit(1)`` is 2, ``bit(2)`` is 4, then 8, +16, 32, etc.). + + +Syntax +------ + +``bit(n)`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +* **n** the bit to set. + + +Value +----- + +The value of an integer with the given bit set. + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple implementation of bit is compatible with Arduino. + + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`lang-bitread` +- :ref:`lang-bitwrite` +- :ref:`lang-bitset` +- :ref:`lang-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitclear.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitclear.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5d1eb95 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitclear.rst @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +.. _lang-bitclear: + +bitClear() +========== + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Clears (writes a 0 to) a bit of a numeric variable. + +Syntax +------ + +``bitClear(x, n)`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +* **x** the numeric variable whose bit to clear + +* **n** which bit to clear, starting at 0 for the least-significant + (rightmost) bit + + +Returns +------- + +None. + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +This implementation is compatible with that of Arduino. + + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`bit `\ () +- :ref:`bitRead `\ () +- :ref:`bitWrite `\ () +- :ref:`bitSet `\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitread.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitread.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9f885cf --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitread.rst @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +.. _lang-bitread: + +bitRead() +========= + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Gets the value of a bit in a number. + + +Syntax +------ + +``bitRead(x, n)`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +* **x** the number from which to read the bit. + +* **n** which bit to read, starting at 0 for the least-significant + (rightmost) bit + + +Value +----- + +The value of the bit (0 or 1). + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple implementation of ``bitRead`` is compatible with Arduino. + + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`lang-bit` +- :ref:`lang-bitwrite` +- :ref:`lang-bitset` +- :ref:`lang-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitset.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitset.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..502c1b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitset.rst @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +.. _lang-bitset: + +bitSet() +======== + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Sets (writes a 1 to) a bit of a numeric variable. + + +Syntax +------ + +``bitSet(x, n)`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +* **x** the numeric variable whose bit to set + +* **n** which bit to set, starting at 0 for the least-significant + (rightmost) bit + + +Value +----- + +None. + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple implementation of bitSet is compatible with Arduino. + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`lang-bit` +- :ref:`lang-bitread` +- :ref:`lang-bitwrite` +- :ref:`lang-bitclear` + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitshift.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitshift.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f05d49e --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitshift.rst @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-bitshift: + +Bit shift left (``<<``), bit shift right (``>>``) +================================================= + +Description +----------- + +(Adapted from `The Bit Math Tutorial +`_ in `The Arduino +Playground `_\ ) + + +There are two bit shift operators in C++: the left shift operator +``<<`` and the right shift operator ``>>``. These operators cause the +bits in the left operand to be shifted left or right by the number of +positions specified by the right operand. + +More information on bitwise math can be obtained in the Wikipedia +article on `bitwise operations +`_\ , especially the +section on shifts in `C, C++, and Java +`_\ . + + +Syntax +------ + +``some_int << number_of_bits`` + +``some_int >> number_of_bits`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +* **some_int** An integer value or variable. + +* **number_of_bits** integer whose value is at most ``8 * + sizeof(variable)`` (so ``number_of_bits`` can be at most 32 for + ``int`` values, at most ``8`` for ``char`` values, etc.; the various + integer sizes are summarized :ref:`in this table + `\ ). + + + +Example: +-------- + +Here are some examples of bit shifting, with the binary representation of the number in comments:: + + int a = 5; // binary: 101 + int b = a << 3; // binary: 101000, or 40 in decimal + int c = b >> 3; // binary: 101, or back to 5 like we started with + + +When you left shift a value x by y bits (x << y), the leftmost y bits +in x are lost, literally shifted out of existence. We'll do this +example with ``char`` values (which are integers in the range 0-255, +and take up 8 bits of memory):: + + char a = 5; // binary (all 8 bits): 00000101 + char b = a << 7; // binary: 10000000 - the first 1 in 101 was discarded + + +If you are certain that none of the ones in a value are being shifted +into oblivion, a simple way to think of the left-shift operator is +that it multiplies the left operand by 2 raised to the right operand +power (in math notation, ``x << y`` equals x * 2\ :sup:`y`\ , as long +as none of the bits of x get shifted out). For example, to generate +powers of 2, the following expressions can be employed:: + + 1 << 0 == 1 + 1 << 1 == 2 + 1 << 2 == 4 + 1 << 3 == 8 + ... + 1 << 8 == 256 + 1 << 9 == 512 + 1 << 10 == 1024 + ... + +.. _lang-bitshift-signbit-gotcha: + +When you shift x right by y bits (``x >> y``), and the highest bit in +x is a 1, the behavior depends on the exact data type of x. If x is of +type ``int``, the highest bit is special, and determines whether x is +negative or not; the details are too complicated to explain here, but +they are thoroughly explained in the Wikipedia article on `two's +complement arithmetic +`_\ , which the +system most computers use to store integers. In that case, the sign +bit is copied into lower bits, for esoteric historical reasons:: + + int x = -16; // binary (all 32 bits): 11111111111111111111111111110000 + int y = x >> 3; // binary: 11111111111111111111111111111110 + + + +This behavior, called "sign extension", is often not what you +want. You probably wish zeros to be shifted in from the left. It +turns out that the right shift rules are different for ``unsigned +int`` values, so you can use a type cast to suppress ones being copied +from the left:: + + int x = -16; // binary: 11111111111111111111111111110000 + int y = (unsigned int)x >> 3; // binary: 00011111111111111111111111111110 + + + +If you are careful to avoid sign extension, you can use the +right-shift operator, ``>>``, as a way to divide by powers of 2. For +example:: + + int x = 1000; + int y = x >> 3; // integer division of 1000 by 8, causing y = 125. + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Since it's part of the C++ language, bit shifting on the Maple is +compatible with the Arduino; however, you should keep in mind that the +Maple has bigger integer types (as in, more bits) than the Arduino. + +Since the STM32 is a 32-bit processor, the ``int`` type takes up 32 +bits instead of 16, like on Arduino's 16-bit microcontroller. This +means that you can shift left, like ``x << y``, with bigger values of +``y`` on the Maple before ones in ``x`` start to get shifted out. + +To calculate the number of bits of an integer type on the Maple, +multiply its size in bytes (see :ref:`this table +` for these) by 8, since there are 8 +bits in 1 byte. For example, a ``short`` takes up 2 bytes of memory, +or 2 * 8 = 16 bits. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`lang-bit` +- :ref:`lang-bitread` +- :ref:`lang-bitwrite` +- :ref:`lang-bitclear` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitwisecompound.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitwisecompound.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b0fe2f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitwisecompound.rst @@ -0,0 +1,231 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-bitwisecompound: + +Compound bitwise and (&=), or (\|=), XOR (^=) +============================================= + +The compound bitwise operators perform their calculations at the +bit level of variables. They are often used to clear and set +specific bits of a variable. + +See the :ref:`bitwise math tutorial ` for more +information on bitwise operators. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +.. _lang-bitwisecompound-and: + +Compound bitwise AND (&=) +------------------------- + +The compound bitwise AND operator ``&=`` is often used with a variable +and a constant to force particular bits in a variable to be zero. This +is often referred to in programming guides as "clearing" or +"resetting" bits. In a program, writing the line ``x &= y;`` is +equivalent to writing ``x = x & y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` +after the line will be equal to its old value bitwise ANDed with the +value of ``y``:: + + x &= y; // equivalent to x = x & y; + +You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type +``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an +integer variable or any :ref:`integer value +` (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for ``y``. + +Before doing an example of ``&=``, let's first review the Bitwise AND +(``&``) operator:: + + 0 0 1 1 operand1 + 0 1 0 1 operand2 + ---------- + 0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) = result + +As shown above, bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 0 become 0, while +bits that are "bitwise ANDed" with 1 are left unchanged. So, if ``b`` +is a ``byte`` variable, then ``b & B00000000`` equals zero, and ``b & +B11111111`` equals ``b``. + +.. _lang-bitwisecompound-binconst: + +.. note:: The above uses :ref:`binary constants + `\ . The numbers are still the same + value in other representations, they just might not be as easy to + understand. + + Normally, in C and C++ code, :ref:`hexadecimal + ` or :ref:`octal + ` are used when we're interested in + an integer's bits, rather than its value as a number. + + While hexadecimal and octal literals might be harder to understand + at first, you should really take the time to learn them. They're + part of C, C++, and many other programming languages, while binary + constants are available only for compatibility with Arduino. + + Also, ``B00000000`` is shown for clarity, but zero in any number + format is zero. + +So, to clear (set to zero) bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while +leaving the rest of the variable's bits unchanged, use the compound +bitwise AND operator ``&=`` with the constant ``B11111100`` +(hexadecimal ``0xFC``\ ):: + + 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable + 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask + ---------------------- + 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ + unchanged cleared + + +Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced +with the symbol ``x``\ :: + + x x x x x x x x variable + 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 mask + ---------------------- + x x x x x x 0 0 + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ + unchanged cleared + + +So, using a byte variable ``b``\ , if we say:: + + b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA + b &= B11111100; // B11111100 == 0xFC + +then we will have :: + + b == B10101000; // B10101000 == 0xA8 + +.. _lang-bitwisecompound-or: + +Compound bitwise OR (\|=) +------------------------- + +The compound bitwise OR operator ``|=`` is often used with a variable +and a constant to "set" (set to 1) particular bits in a variable. In +a program, writing the line ``x |= y;`` is equivalent to writing ``x = +x | y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` after the line will be equal to +its old value bitwise ORed with the value of ``y``:: + + x |= y; // equivalent to x = x | y; + +You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type +``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an +integer variable or any integer value (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for +``y``. (This works the same way as :ref:`compound bitwise AND +`\ , ``&=``). + +Before doing an example of ``|=``, let's first review the Bitwise OR +(``|``) operator:: + + 0 0 1 1 operand1 + 0 1 0 1 operand2 + ---------- + 0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) = result + +Bits that are "bitwise ORed" with 0 are unchanged, while bits that are +"bitwise ORed" with 1 are set to 1. So if ``b`` is a ``byte`` +variable, then ``b | B00000000`` equals ``b``, and ``b & B11111111`` +equals ``B11111111`` (here we've used binary constants; see the +:ref:`note ` above). + +So, to set bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while leaving the rest +of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise OR operator +(``|=``) with the constant ``B00000011`` (hexadecimal ``0x3``):: + + 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable + 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask + ---------------------- + 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ + unchanged set + +Here is the same representation with the variable's bits replaced with +the symbol ``x``:: + + x x x x x x x x variable + 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask + ---------------------- + x x x x x x 1 1 + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ + unchanged set + +So, using a byte variable ``b``, if we say:: + + b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA + b |= B00000011; // B00000011 == 0x3 + +then we will have :: + + b == B10101011; // B10101011 == 0xAB + +.. _lang-bitwisecompound-xor: + +Compound bitwise XOR (\^=) +-------------------------- + +The compound bitwise XOR operator ``^=`` is used with a variable and a +constant to "toggle" (change 0 to 1, and 1 to 0) particular bits in a +variable. In a program, writing the line ``x ^= y;`` is equivalent to +writing ``x = x ^ y;``. That is, the value of ``x`` after the line +will be equal to its old value bitwise XORed with the value of ``y``:: + + x ^= y; // equivalent to x = x ^ y; + +You can use any integer variable for ``x`` (i.e., any variable of type +``int``, ``long``, ``char``, ``byte``, etc.). You can use either an +integer variable or any integer value (like ``3`` or ``0x20``) for +``y``. (This works the same way as :ref:`&= +` and :ref:`\|= +`; in fact, these three operators all +work the same in this way). + +Before doing an example of ``^=``, let's first review the Bitwise +XOR operator, ``^``:: + + 0 0 1 1 operand1 + 0 1 0 1 operand2 + ---------- + 0 1 1 0 (operand1 ^ operand2) = result + +One way to look at bitwise XOR is that each bit in the result is a 1 +if the input bits are different, or 0 if they are the same. Another +way to think about it is that the result bit will be 1 when *exactly* +one (no more, no less) of the input bits is 1; otherwise, it will be +zero. This means that if you XOR a bit with 1, it will change (or +toggle) its value, while if you XOR a bit with 0, it stays the same. + +So, to toggle bits 0 and 1 of a one-byte variable, while leaving the +rest of the variable unchanged, use the compound bitwise XOR operator +``^=`` with the constant ``B00000011`` (hexadecimal ``0x3``\ ; see +:ref:`note ` above):: + + 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 variable + 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 mask + ---------------------- + 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ + unchanged toggled + +So, using a byte variable ``b``, if we say:: + + b = B10101010; // B10101010 == 0xAA + b ^= B00000011; // B00000011 == 0x3 + +then we will have :: + + b == B10101001; // B10101001 == 0xA9 + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`Boolean operations ` (``&&``, ``||``) +- :ref:`Bitwise operators ` (``&``, ``|``, ``^``, ``~``) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitwisemath.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitwisemath.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30e8873 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitwisemath.rst @@ -0,0 +1,186 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-bitwisemath: + +Bitwise AND (&), OR (\|), XOR (^), NOT (~) +========================================== + +The bitwise operators perform their calculations at the bit level of +variables. They help solve a wide range of common programming +problems. + +Much of the material here is adapted for Maple from an (Arduino) +`tutorial on bitwise math +`_\ . Another great +resource is the Wikipedia article on `bitwise operations +`_\ . + +Below are descriptions and syntax for all of the operators. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +.. _lang-bitwisemath-and: + +Bitwise AND (&) +--------------- + +The bitwise AND operator in C++ is a single ampersand, ``&``, used +between two other integer expressions. Bitwise AND operates on each +bit position of the surrounding expressions independently, according +to this rule: if both input bits are 1, the resulting output is 1, +otherwise the output is 0. Another way of expressing this is:: + + 0 0 1 1 operand1 + 0 1 0 1 operand2 + ---------- + 0 0 0 1 (operand1 & operand2) = result + + +On the Maple, the type ``int`` is a 32-bit value, so using ``&`` +between two ``int`` expressions causes 32 simultaneous AND operations +to occur. In a code fragment like:: + + int a = 92; // in binary: 00000000000000000000000001011100 + int b = 101; // in binary: 00000000000000000000000001100101 + int c = a & b; // result: 00000000000000000000000001000100, + // (or 68 in decimal). + + +Each of the 32 bits in ``a`` and ``b`` are processed using bitwise +AND, and all 32 resulting bits are stored in ``c``, resulting in the +value 1000100 in binary, which is 68 in decimal. + + +.. _lang-bitwisemath-or: + +Bitwise OR (\|) +--------------- + +The bitwise OR operator in C++ is the vertical bar symbol, ``|``. Like +the ``&`` operator, ``|`` operates independently on each bit in its +two surrounding integer expressions, but what it does is +different. The bitwise OR of two bits is 1 if either or both of the +input bits is 1, otherwise it is 0. For example:: + + 0 0 1 1 operand1 + 0 1 0 1 operand2 + ---------- + 0 1 1 1 (operand1 | operand2) = result + +Here is an example of bitwise OR used in a snippet of C++ code (using +``char``, which takes up 8 bits of memory, instead of ``int``, which +uses 32):: + + char a = 92; // in binary: 01011100 + char b = 101; // in binary: 01100101 + char c = a | b; // result: 01111101, or 125 in decimal. + +.. _lang-bitwisemath-xor: + +Bitwise XOR (^) +--------------- + +There is a somewhat unusual operator in C++ called bitwise EXCLUSIVE +OR, also known as bitwise XOR. (In English, this is usually pronounced +"zor" or "ex-or"). The bitwise XOR operator is written using the caret +symbol, ``^``. This operator is very similar to the bitwise OR +operator ``|``, except it evaluates to 0 for a given bit position when +both of the input bits for that position are 1:: + + 0 0 1 1 operand1 + 0 1 0 1 operand2 + ---------- + 0 1 1 0 (operand1 ^ operand2) = result + + +Another way to look at bitwise XOR is that each bit in the result +is a 1 if the input bits are different, or 0 if they are the same. + +Here is a simple example:: + + int x = 12; // binary (ignoring extra bits): 1100 + int y = 10; // binary: 1010 + int z = x ^ y; // binary: 0110, or decimal 6 + + + +The ^ operator is often used to toggle (i.e. change from 0 to 1, or 1 +to 0) some of the bits in an integer expression. In a bitwise OR +operation if there is a 1 in the mask bit, that bit is inverted; if +there is a 0, the bit is not inverted and stays the same. Below is a +program to blink digital pin 13 (the LED pin on Maple):: + + // Blink Maple LED pin + + int led_pin = 13; + int toggle = 0; + + // demo for Exclusive OR + void setup(){ + pinMode(led_pin, OUTPUT); + } + + void loop(){ + toggle = toggle ^ 1; + digitalWrite(led_pin, toggle); + delay(100); + } + +.. _lang-bitwisemath-not: + +Bitwise NOT (~) +--------------- + +The bitwise NOT operator in C++ is the tilde character ``~``. Unlike +``&`` and ``|``, the bitwise NOT operator is applied to a single +operand to its right. Bitwise NOT changes each bit to its opposite: 0 +becomes 1, and 1 becomes 0. For example:: + + 0 1 operand1 + ---- + 1 0 ~operand1 = result + +Another example:: + + char a = 103; // binary: 01100111 + char b = ~a; // binary: 10011000 = -104 + +You might be surprised to see a negative number like -104 as the +result of this operation. This is because the highest bit in an int +variable is the so-called "sign bit". If the highest bit is 1, the +number is interpreted as negative. This encoding of positive and +negative numbers is referred to as *two's complement*. For more +information, see the Wikipedia article on `two's +complement. `_ + +As an aside, it is interesting to note that (under two's complement +arithmetic) for any integer ``x``, ``~x`` is the same as ``-x-1``. + +At times, the sign bit in a signed integer expression can cause +some unwanted surprises. + + +Uses +---- + +One of the most common uses of bitwise operations is to select or +manipulate a particular bit (or bits) from an integer value, often +called `bit masking +`_\ . See the +linked Wikipedia article for more information and examples. + +If you really want to see bit-twiddling techniques in their full +glory, you could do much worse than to get yourself a copy of +`Hacker's Delight `_\ . + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`Boolean operations ` (``&&``, ``||``) +- :ref:`Compound bitwise operations ` (``&=``, + ``|=``, ``^=``). + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bitwrite.rst b/docs/source/lang/bitwrite.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..86df26e --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bitwrite.rst @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +.. _lang-bitwrite: + +bitWrite(x, n, b) +================= + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Writes a bit of a numeric variable. + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: the numeric variable whose bit to write. + +**n**: which bit of the number to write, starting at 0 for the +least-significant (rightmost) bit. + +**b**: the value to write to the bit (0 or 1). + +Returns +------- + +Nothing. + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Maple's version of ``bitWrite()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`bit() ` +- :ref:`bitRead() ` +- :ref:`bitSet() ` +- :ref:`bitClear() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/boolean.rst b/docs/source/lang/boolean.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6ff4097 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/boolean.rst @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-boolean: + +Boolean Operators +================= + +These can be used inside the condition of an :ref:`if ` +statement. Evaluate to :ref:`true ` or +:ref:`false `. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +.. _lang-boolean-and: + +&& (logical and) +---------------- + +True only if both operands are true. For example:: + + if (digitalRead(2) == HIGH && digitalRead(3) == HIGH) { // read two switches + // ... + } + +is true only if both inputs are high. Another example:: + + if (a >= 10 && a <= 20){} // true if a is between 10 and 20 + +**Be careful** not to say ``10 <= a <= 20``! This won't work the way +you want. You have to separately test whether ``a`` is at least 10 +using ``a >= 10``, then test whether ``a`` is at most 20 using ``a <= +20``, then combine the results using ``&&``. + + +.. _lang-boolean-or: + +\|\| (logical or) +----------------- + +True if either operand is true. For example:: + + if (x > 0 || y > 0) { + // ... + } + +is true if either ``x`` or ``y`` is greater than 0. + +.. _lang-boolean-not: + +! (logical not) +--------------- + +True if the operand is false. For example:: + + if (!x) { + // ... + } + +is true if ``x`` is false (i.e. if ``x`` is zero). + +Some Advice +----------- + +.. warning:: + + Make sure you don't mistake the boolean AND operator ``&&`` + (double ampersand) for the :ref:`bitwise AND operator + ` ``&`` (single ampersand). They are + entirely different beasts. + + Similarly, do not confuse the boolean OR operator ``||`` (double + pipe) with the :ref:`bitwise OR operator ` + ``|`` (single pipe). + + The :ref:`bitwise NOT operator ` ``~`` + (tilde) looks much different than the boolean not operator ``!`` + (exclamation point, or "bang", as some programmers say), but you + still have to be sure which one you want. + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`Bitwise operators ` (``&``, ``|``, ``^``, ``~``) +- :ref:`Compound bitwise operators ` (``&=``, + ``|=``, ``^=``). +- :ref:`if statement ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/booleanvariables.rst b/docs/source/lang/booleanvariables.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d0e992 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/booleanvariables.rst @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-booleanvariables: + +Booleans +======== + +A **boolean** holds one of two values, :ref:`true +` or :ref:`false `. +On a Maple, each boolean variable occupies one byte of memory, and has +type ``bool``. + +.. warning:: + + On an Arduino, the type ``boolean`` is also provided. While the + Maple also has this type for compatibility, **its use is strongly + discouraged**. The ``bool`` type is a standard part of C++, while + ``boolean`` is a non-standard extension that serves no purpose. + +Example +------- + +:: + + int ledPin = 13; // LED on pin 13 + int switchPin = 12; // momentary switch on 12, other side connected to ground + + // running is a boolean variable: + bool running = false; + + void setup() { + pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); + pinMode(switchPin, INPUT); + digitalWrite(switchPin, HIGH); // turn on pullup resistor + } + + void loop() { + if (digitalRead(switchPin) == LOW) { + // switch is pressed - pullup keeps pin high normally + delay(100); // delay to debounce switch + running = !running; // toggle running variable + digitalWrite(ledPin, running) // indicate via LED + } + } + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`Boolean constants ` +- :ref:`Boolean operators ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/braces.rst b/docs/source/lang/braces.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..229ad8c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/braces.rst @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-braces: + +Curly Braces ({}) +================= + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Introduction +------------ + +Curly braces (also referred to as just "braces" or as "curly +brackets") are a major part of the C and C++ programming +languages. They are used in several different constructs, outlined +below, and this can sometimes be confusing for beginners. + +An opening curly brace, ``{`` must always be followed by a closing +curly brace ``}``. This is a condition that is often referred to as +the braces being *balanced*. The Maple IDE (integrated development +environment) includes a convenient feature to check the balance of +curly braces. Just select a brace, or even click the insertion point +immediately following a brace, and its companion will be highlighted\ +[#fbug]_\ . + +Beginning programmers, and programmers coming to C++ from languages +without braces, often find using them confusing or daunting. + +Because the use of the curly brace is so varied, it is good +programming practice to type the closing brace immediately after +typing the opening brace when inserting a construct which requires +curly braces. Then insert some blank lines between your braces and +begin inserting statements. Your braces, and your attitude, will never +become unbalanced. + +Unbalanced braces can often lead to cryptic, impenetrable compiler +errors that can sometimes be hard to track down in a large program. +Because of their varied usages, braces are also incredibly important +to the syntax of a program and moving a brace one or two lines will +usually dramatically affect the meaning of a program. + +The main uses of curly braces +----------------------------- + +**Functions**:: + + // a function body needs braces around it + void myFunction(datatype argument) { + // ... function body goes in here ... + } + +**Loops** (see the :ref:`while `\ , :ref:`for +`\ , and :ref:`do/while ` loop reference +pages for more information):: + + // you should put braces around the body of a loop: + + while (boolean expression) { + // code inside the loop goes here + } + + for (initialisation; termination condition; incrementing expr) { + // code inside the loop goes here + } + + do { + // code inside the loop goes here + } while (boolean expression); + + +**Conditional statements** (see the :ref:`if statement ` +reference page for more information):: + + // you should put braces around the body of an "if", "else if", + // or "else": + + if (boolean expression) { + // code inside the "if" + } + else if (boolean expression) { + // code inside the "else if" + } + else { + // code inside the "else" + } + +**Switch statements** (see the :ref:`switch statement +` reference page for more information):: + + switch (var) { + case 1: + doThing1(); + break; + case 2: + doThing2(); + break; + } + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. TODO remove this once IDE 0.1.0 released + +.. [#fbug] At present this feature is slightly buggy as the IDE will + often find (incorrectly) a brace in text that has been commented + out. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/break.rst b/docs/source/lang/break.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dc50b5f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/break.rst @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-break: + +break +===== + +``break`` is used to exit from a :ref:`while `\ , +:ref:`for `\ , or :ref:`do/while ` loop, +bypassing the normal loop condition. It is also used to exit from a +:ref:`switch ` statement. + + +Example +------- + +:: + + for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) + { + digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); + sens = analogRead(sensorPin); + if (sens > threshold){ // bail out on sensor detect + x = 0; + // this line of code means that we'll immediately exit + // from the "for" loop: + break; + } + delay(50); + } + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/byte.rst b/docs/source/lang/byte.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..45c9d5f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/byte.rst @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-byte: + +byte +==== + +The ``byte`` type stores a 1-byte (8-bit) unsigned integer number, +from 0 to 255. + +.. warning:: + + The ``byte`` type is provided for compatibility with Arduino. + However, it is a non-standard extension. The standard C++ type for + storing an 8-bit unsigned integer is ``unsigned char``; we + recommend using that instead. (Your code will still work on an + Arduino). + + +Example +------- + +:: + + byte b = 134; + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`byte() ` (casting a value to a byte) +- :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/bytecast.rst b/docs/source/lang/bytecast.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ad2a89 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/bytecast.rst @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-bytecast: + +byte() (cast) +============= + +Description +----------- + +Converts a value to the :ref:`byte ` data type. + +.. note:: + + Casting to the byte type is provided for compatibility with + Arduino. However, the recommended Maple type for storing an 8-bit + unsigned integer is ``uint8``. (C and C++ programmers: ``stdint.h`` + is also available). + + In order to cast a variable ``x`` to a ``uint8``, the + following syntax can be used:: + + uint8(x); + +Syntax +------ + +``byte(x)`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: a value of any integer type + + +Returns +------- + +The value, converted to a ``byte``. Note, however, that if the value +is larger than the maximum value you can store in a byte (255), then +the results might be strange and unexpected. + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`lang-byte` + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/cc-attribution.txt b/docs/source/lang/cc-attribution.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e100140 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/cc-attribution.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +.. Included in all this directory's files in order to satisfy the +.. Arduino CC Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License + +.. admonition:: License and Attribution + + This documentation page was adapted from the `Arduino Reference + Documentation `_\ , which + is released under a `Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 + License `_. diff --git a/docs/source/lang/char.rst b/docs/source/lang/char.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c6dadf --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/char.rst @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-char: + +char +==== + +Description +----------- + +The ``char`` type stores a 1-byte character value (or integer with +value from -128 to 127). Character literals are written in single +quotes, like this: ``'A'`` (for multiple characters - strings - use +double quotes: ``"ABC"``). + + +Just like everything else on a computer, characters are stored as +numbers. You can see the specific encoding in the `ASCII chart +`_\ +. This means that it is possible to do arithmetic on characters, in +which the ASCII value of the character is used (e.g. ``'A' + 1`` has the +decimal value 66, since the ASCII value of the capital letter A in +decimal is 65). See the :ref:`Serial.println() +` documentation for more information about how +characters are converted into numbers. + +The ``char`` datatype is a signed type, meaning that it encodes +numbers from -128 to 127. For an unsigned type, which stores values +from 0 to 255, just use the type ``unsigned char`` (two words). + + +Example +------- + +:: + + // the following two lines are equivalent, using the ASCII + // character encoding: + char c = 'A'; + char c = 65; + + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`lang-int` +- :ref:`lang-array` (a string is just an array of ``char``\ s) +- :ref:`Serial.println() ` + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/charcast.rst b/docs/source/lang/charcast.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..844dd58 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/charcast.rst @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-charcast: + +char() (cast) +============= + +Description +----------- + +Converts a value to the :ref:`char ` data type. + +Syntax +------ + +``char(x)`` + + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: a value of any type + + +Returns +------- + +The value, converted to a ``char``. Note, however, that if the value +is outside the range of a ``char`` (-128 to 127), then the results +might be strange and unexpected. + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`char ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/comments.rst b/docs/source/lang/comments.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c5f118a --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/comments.rst @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-comments: + +Comments +======== + +Comments are lines in the program that are used to inform yourself or +others about the way the program works. They are ignored by the +compiler, and not exported to the processor, so they don't take up any +space in RAM or Flash. + +One use for comments is to help you understand (or remember) how your +program works, or to inform others how your program works. There are +two different ways of making comments. + +.. _lang-comments-singleline: + +**Single line comment**: Anything following two slashes, ``//``, until +the end of the line, is a comment:: + + x = 5; // the rest of this line is a comment + +.. _lang-comments-multiline: + +**Multi-line comment**: Anything in between a pair of ``/*`` and ``*/`` +is a comment:: + + /* <-- a slash-star begins a multi-line comment + + all of this in the multi-line comment - you can use it to comment + out whole blocks of code + + if (gwb == 0){ // single line comment is OK inside a multi-line comment + x = 3; + } + + // don't forget the "closing" star-slash - they have to be balanced: + */ + +Note that it's okay to use single-line comments within a multi-line +comment, but you can't use multi-line comments within a multi-line +comment. Here's an example:: + + /* ok, i started a multi-line comment + + x = 3; /* this next star-slash ENDS the multi-line comment: */ + + x = 4; // this line is outside of the multi-line comment + + // next line is also outside of the comment, and causes a compile error: + */ + +Programming Tip +--------------- + +When experimenting with code, "commenting out" parts of your program +is a convenient way to remove lines that may be buggy. This leaves +the lines in the code, but turns them into comments, so the compiler +just ignores them. This can be especially useful when trying to locate +a problem, or when a program refuses to compile and the compiler error +is cryptic or unhelpful. + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/comparison.rst b/docs/source/lang/comparison.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8873256 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/comparison.rst @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-comparison: + +Comparison Operators +==================== + +The comparison operators ``==``, ``!=``, ``<``, ``>``, ``<=``, and +``>=`` are used to compare two numbers. They are :ref:`true +` when the comparison is true, and :ref:`false +` otherwise. They are based on the symbols +=, ≠, <, >, ≤, and ≥ from mathematics. + +Here are some examples, with their meaning in comments:: + + // "eq" is true when x is equal to y + bool eq = (x == y); + + // "neq" is true when x is different than y + bool neq = (x != y); + + // "lt" is true when x is less than, but NOT equal to, y + bool lt = (x < y); + + // "gt" is true when x is greater than, but NOT equal to, y + bool gt = (x > y); + + // "lte" is true when x is less than or equal to y + bool lte = (x <= y); + + // "gte" is true when x is greater than or equal to y + bool gte = (x >= y); + +The parentheses are optional; they are present only for clarity. For +example, the following two lines are the same:: + + bool eq = x == y; + + bool eq = (x == y); + +Uses +---- + +Comparison operators, along with :ref:`boolean operators +`, are useful inside the conditionals of :ref:`if +` statements. Here's one example:: + + if (x < 50) { + // only execute these lines if x is less than 50 + SerialUSB.println("delaying:"); + SerialUSB.println(x); + delay(x); + } + +.. warning:: + Beware of accidentally using the single equal sign (``=``) when you + meant to test if two numbers are equal (``==``). This is a common + mistake inside of ``if`` statement conditionals, e.g.:: + + // DON'T MAKE THIS MISTAKE + if (x = 10) { + // body + } + + The single equal sign is the assignment operator, and sets x to 10 + (puts the value 10 into the variable x). Instead use the double equal + sign (e.g. ``if (x == 10)``), which is the comparison operator, and + tests *whether* x is equal to 10 or not. The latter statement is only + true if x equals 10, but the former statement will always be true. + + This is because C evaluates the statement ``if (x=10)`` as follows: 10 + is assigned to x (remember that the single equal sign is the + :ref:`assignment operator `), so x now + contains 10. Then the 'if' conditional evaluates 10, which evaluates + to :ref:`true `, since any non-zero number + evaluates to ``true``. + + Consequently, the conditional of an ``if`` statement like ``if (x = + 10) {...}`` will always evaluate to ``true``, and the variable x + will be set to 10, which is probably not what you meant. + + (This sometimes has uses, though, so just because an assignment + appears within a conditional doesn't mean it's automatically wrong. + Be careful to know what you mean.) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/const.rst b/docs/source/lang/const.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1658e6d --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/const.rst @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-const: + +const Keyword +============= + +The ``const`` keyword stands for "constant". It is a variable +*qualifier* that modifies the behavior of the variable, making a +variable "*read-only*". This means that the variable can be used just +as any other variable of its type, but its value cannot be +changed. You will get a compiler error if you try to assign a value to +a ``const`` variable. + +Constants defined with the ``const`` keyword obey the same rules of +:ref:`variable scoping ` that govern other +variables. This, and the pitfalls of using :ref:`#define +`, often makes using the ``const`` keyword a superior +method for defining constants than ``#define``. + +Example +------- + +:: + + // this defines a variable called "pi", which cannot be changed: + const float pi = 3.14; + float x; + + // .... + + x = pi * 2; // it's fine to find the value of a const variable + + pi = 7; // illegal - you can't write to (modify) a constant + + +**#define** or **const** +------------------------ + +You can use either ``const`` or ``#define`` for creating numeric or +string constants. For :ref:`arrays `\ , you will need +to use ``const``. In general, ``const`` is preferred over ``#define`` +for defining constants. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`#define ` +- :ref:`volatile ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/constants.rst b/docs/source/lang/constants.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7521ed --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/constants.rst @@ -0,0 +1,302 @@ +.. _lang-constants: + +constants +========= + +Constants are predefined variables in the Arduino language. They +are used to make the programs easier to read. We classify constants +in groups. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +.. _lang-constants-bool: + +Boolean Constants +----------------- + +There are two constants used to represent truth and falsity in the +Arduino language: **true**, and **false**. + +.. _lang-constants-false: + +false +^^^^^ + +false is the easier of the two to define. false is defined as 0 +(zero). + +.. _lang-constants-true: + +true +^^^^ + +true is often said to be defined as 1, which is correct, but true +has a wider definition. Any integer which is *non-zero* is TRUE, in +a Boolean sense. So -1, 2 and -200 are all defined as true, too, in +a Boolean sense. + + +Note that the *true* and *false* constants are typed in lowercase +unlike HIGH, LOW, INPUT, & OUTPUT. + + +Defining Pin Levels, HIGH and LOW +--------------------------------- + +When reading or writing to a digital pin there are only two +possible values a pin can take/be-set-to: **HIGH** and **LOW**. + +.. _lang-constants-high: + +**HIGH** + + + +The meaning of HIGH (in reference to a pin) is somewhat different +depending on whether a pin is set to an INPUT or OUTPUT. When a pin +is configured as an INPUT with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, +the microcontroller will report HIGH if a voltage of 3 volts or +more is present at the pin. + + + +A pin may also be configured as an INPUT with pinMode, and +subsequently made HIGH with digitalWrite, this will set the +internal 20K pullup resistors, which will *steer* the input pin to +a HIGH reading unless it is pulled LOW by external circuitry. + + + +When a pin is configured to OUTPUT with pinMode, and set to HIGH +with digitalWrite, the pin is at 5 volts. In this state it can +*source* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected through a +series resistor to ground, or to another pin configured as an +output, and set to LOW. + +.. _lang-constants-low: + +**LOW** + + + +The meaning of LOW also has a different meaning depending on +whether a pin is set to INPUT or OUTPUT. When a pin is configured +as an INPUT with pinMode, and read with digitalRead, the +microcontroller will report LOW if a voltage of 2 volts or less is +present at the pin. + + + +When a pin is configured to OUTPUT with pinMode, and set to LOW +with digitalWrite, the pin is at 0 volts. In this state it can +*sink* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected through a +series resistor to, +5 volts, or to another pin configured as an +output, and set to HIGH. + + + +Defining Digital Pins, INPUT and OUTPUT +--------------------------------------- + +Digital pins can be used either as **INPUT** or **OUTPUT**. +Changing a pin from INPUT TO OUTPUT with pinMode() drastically +changes the electrical behavior of the pin. + +.. _lang-constants-input: + +Pins Configured as Inputs +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Arduino (Atmega) pins configured as **INPUT** with pinMode() are +said to be in a high-impedance state. One way of explaining this is +that pins configured as INPUT make extremely small demands on the +circuit that they are sampling, say equivalent to a series resistor +of 100 Megohms in front of the pin. This makes them useful for +reading a sensor, but not powering an LED. + +.. _lang-constants-output: + +Pins Configured as Outputs +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Pins configured as **OUTPUT** with pinMode() are said to be in a +low-impedance state. This means that they can provide a substantial +amount of current to other circuits. Atmega pins can source +(provide positive current) or sink (provide negative current) up to +40 mA (milliamps) of current to other devices/circuits. This makes +them useful for powering LED's but useless for reading sensors. +Pins configured as outputs can also be damaged or destroyed if +short circuited to either ground or 5 volt power rails. The amount +of current provided by an Atmega pin is also not enough to power +most relays or motors, and some interface circuitry will be +required. + +.. _lang-constants-fp: + +Floating-Point Constants +------------------------ + +Similar to integer constants, floating point constants are used to +make code more readable. Floating point constants are swapped at +compile time for the value to which the expression evaluates. + +.. TODO explain that floating point literals are doubles + +.. _lang-constants-fp-f: + +.. TODO f modifiers + +Examples: + +``n = .005;`` + +Floating point constants can also be expressed in a variety of +scientific notation. 'E' and 'e' are both accepted as valid +exponent indicators. + +:: + + + floating-point evaluates to: also evaluates to: + constant + + 10.0 10 + 2.34E5 2.34 * 10^5 234000 + 67e-12 67.0 * 10^-12 .000000000067 + +.. _lang-constants-integers: + +Integer Constants +----------------- + +Integer constants are numbers used directly in a sketch, like +``123``. By default, these numbers are treated as +`int `_'s but you can change +this with the U and L modifiers (see below). + + + +Normally, integer constants are treated as base 10 (decimal) +integers, but special notation (formatters) may be used to enter +numbers in other bases. + + + +:: + + Base Example Formatter Comment + + 10 (decimal) 123 none + + 2 (binary) B1111011 leading 'B' only works with 8 bit values (0 to 255) + characters 0-1 valid + + 8 (octal) 0173 leading "0" characters 0-7 valid + + 16 (hexadecimal) 0x7B leading "0x" characters 0-9, A-F, a-f valid + +.. _lang-constants-integers-dec: + +**Decimal** is base 10. This is the common-sense math with which +you are acquainted. Constants without other prefixes are assumed to +be in decimal format. + + + +Example: +:: + + 101 // same as 101 decimal ((1 * 10^2) + (0 * 10^1) + 1) + +.. _lang-constants-integers-bin: + +**Binary** is base two. Only characters 0 and 1 are valid. + + + +Example: +:: + + B101 // same as 5 decimal ((1 * 2^2) + (0 * 2^1) + 1) + +The binary formatter only works on bytes (8 bits) between 0 (B0) +and 255 (B11111111). If it is convenient to input an int (16 bits) +in binary form you can do it a two-step procedure such as: + + + +:: + + myInt = (B11001100 * 256) + B10101010; // B11001100 is the high byte + +.. _lang-constants-integers-oct: + +**Octal** is base eight. Only characters 0 through 7 are valid. Octal +values are indicated by the prefix "0". + +Example: + +:: + + 0101 // same as 65 decimal ((1 * 8^2) + (0 * 8^1) + 1) + +Warning +It is possible to generate a hard-to-find bug by (unintentionally) +including a leading zero before a constant and having the compiler +unintentionally interpret your constant as octal. + +.. _lang-constants-integers-hex: + +**Hexadecimal (or hex)** is base sixteen. Valid characters are 0 +through 9 and letters A through F; A has the value 10, B is 11, up +to F, which is 15. Hex values are indicated by the prefix "0x". +Note that A-F may be syted in upper or lower case (a-f). + + + +Example: + +:: + + 0x101 // same as 257 decimal ((1 * 16^2) + (0 * 16^1) + 1) + +.. _lang-constants-integers-u-l: + +U & L formatters +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +By default, an integer constant is treated as an +`int `_ with the attendant +limitations in values. To specify an integer constant with another +data type, follow it with: + + + + +- a 'u' or 'U' to force the constant into an unsigned data format. + Example: ``33u`` +- a 'l' or 'L' to force the constant into a long data format. + Example: ``100000L`` +- a 'ul' or 'UL' to force the constant into an unsigned long + constant. Example: ``32767ul`` + + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `pinMode() `_ +- `Integer Constants `_ +- `boolean variables `_ +- `#define `_ +- `byte `_ +- `int `_ +- `unsigned int `_ +- `long `_ +- `unsigned long `_ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/constrain.rst b/docs/source/lang/constrain.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..297a2d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/constrain.rst @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-constrain: + +constrain(x, a, b) +================== + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Constrains a number to be within a range. + + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: the number to constrain + +**a**: the lower end of the range + +**b**: the upper end of the range + +Returns +------- + +**x**: if **x** is between **a** and **b** + +**a**: if **x** is less than **a** + +**b**: if **x** is greater than **b** + +Example +------- + +:: + + // limits range of sensor values to between 10 and 150: + sensVal = constrain(sensVal, 10, 150); + + +Warning +------- + +Because of the way ``constrain()`` is implemented, avoid using other +functions or causing side effects inside the parentheses, as it may +lead to incorrect results:: + + constrain(x,a++,b); // avoid this - yields incorrect results + + constrain(x,a,b); // use this instead- + a++; // keep other math outside constrain() + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Maple's implementation of ``constrain()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`min() ` +- :ref:`max() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/continue.rst b/docs/source/lang/continue.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..21b3984 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/continue.rst @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-continue: + +========== + continue +========== + +The ``continue`` keyword skips the rest of the current iteration of a +:ref:`while `\ , :ref:`for `\ , or +:ref:`do/while ` loop. It continues by checking the +conditional expression of the loop, and proceeding with any subsequent +iterations. + + +Example +======= + +:: + + + for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++) { + if (x > 40 && x < 120) { // create jump in values + continue; // skips the next two lines and goes to the + // beginning of the loop, with the next value of x + } + + digitalWrite(PWMpin, x); + delay(50); + } + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/cos.rst b/docs/source/lang/cos.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3fbb0af --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/cos.rst @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +.. _lang-cos: + +cos() +===== + +Calculates the cosine of an angle. + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: cos + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple ``cos()`` implementation is compatible with Arduino. + +Note that the Maple implementation comes from `newlib +`_\ , while Arduino's is that of +`avr-libc `_\ . + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`sin() ` +- :ref:`tan() ` +- :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`double ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/define.rst b/docs/source/lang/define.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30738ec --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/define.rst @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-define: + +#define +======= + +``#define`` is a useful C and C++ feature that allows the programmer +to give a name to a constant value before the program is compiled. +The compiler will replace references to these constants with the +defined value at compile time. + +This can have some unwanted side effects. In general, the :ref:`const +` keyword is preferred for defining constants. + + +Syntax +------ + +The following line would define the name ``MY_CONSTANT`` to have value +``value``:: + + #define MY_CONSTANT value + +Note that the ``#`` is necessary. It is usually good style for the +name to be capitalized, although this is not required. + +There is no semicolon after the #define statement. If you include one, +the compiler will likely throw cryptic errors in unrelated places. +That is, **don't do this**:: + + // DON'T DO THIS! THE SEMICOLON SHOULDN'T BE THERE! + #define NAME value; + +Similarly, including an equal sign after the ``#define`` line will +also generate a cryptic compiler error further down the page. That +is, **don't do this, either**:: + + // DON'T DO THIS, EITHER! THE EQUALS SIGN SHOULDN'T BE THERE! + #define NAME = value + +Example +------- + +:: + + #define LED_PIN 13 + // The compiler will replace any mention of LED_PIN with + // the value 3 at compile time. + +See Also +-------- +- :ref:`const ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/delay.rst b/docs/source/lang/delay.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..90ca268 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/delay.rst @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-delay: + +delay() +======= + +Pauses the program for at least a given number of milliseconds. (There +are 1000 milliseconds in a second.) + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: delay + + +Discussion +---------- + +While it is easy to create a blinking LED with the ``delay()`` +function, and many sketches use short delays for such tasks as switch +debouncing, the use of ``delay()`` in a sketch has significant +drawbacks. No other reading of sensors, mathematical calculations, or +pin manipulation can go on during the delay function, so in effect, it +brings most other activity to a halt. For alternative approaches to +controlling timing see the :ref:`millis() ` function +and the "Blink Without Delay" sketch cited :ref:`below +`\ . More knowledgeable programmers usually +avoid the use of ``delay()`` for timing of events longer than tens of +milliseconds, unless the sketch is very simple. + +Certain things *do* go on while the ``delay()`` function is +controlling the STM32 chip, however, because the delay function does +not disable interrupts. Serial communication that appears at the RX +pin is recorded, PWM (see :ref:`pwmWrite() `\ ) values +and pin states are maintained, and :ref:`interrupts +` will work as they should. + + +Example +------- + +:: + + int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to pin 13 + + void setup() { + pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output + } + + void loop() { + digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on + delay(1000); // waits for a second + digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off + delay(1000); // waits for a second + } + +.. _lang-delay-seealso: + +See also +-------- + + +- :ref:`millis() ` +- :ref:`micros() ` +- :ref:`delayMicroseconds() ` +- (Arduino) `Blink Without Delay + `_ example (works + unmodified on Maple) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/delaymicroseconds.rst b/docs/source/lang/delaymicroseconds.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24a8286 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/delaymicroseconds.rst @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-delaymicroseconds: + +delayMicroseconds() +=================== + +Pauses the program for the amount of time (in microseconds) +specified as parameter. There are a thousand microseconds in a +millisecond, and a million microseconds in a second. + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: delayMicroseconds + + +Example +------- + +The following example configures pin number 8 to work as an output +pin, and sends a train of pulses with a period of roughly 100 +microseconds:: + + int outPin = 8; + + void setup() { + pinMode(outPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output + } + + void loop() { + digitalWrite(outPin, HIGH); // sets the pin on + delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds + digitalWrite(outPin, LOW); // sets the pin off + delayMicroseconds(50); // pauses for 50 microseconds + } + + +Caveats and Known Issues +------------------------ + +The longest time ``delayMicroseconds()`` can delay is bounded by its +argument type and the STM32 clock rate to be (2^32 - 1) / 12 +microseconds, or less than 6 minutes. For longer pauses, use of +:ref:`lang-delay` is possible. + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +While we have made every effort we could to ensure that the timing of +delayMicroseconds is as accurate as possible, we cannot guarantee it +will behave as the Arduino implementation down to the microsecond, +especially for smaller values of ``us``. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`millis ` +- :ref:`micros ` +- :ref:`delay ` + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/detachinterrupt.rst b/docs/source/lang/detachinterrupt.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..adb2439 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/detachinterrupt.rst @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +.. _lang-detachinterrupt: + +detachInterrupt() +================= + +Used to disable an interrupt specified with +:ref:`lang-attachinterrupt`\ . + + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: detachInterrupt + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +There is one important difference between the Maple version of +detachInterrupt and the Arduino version. On the Maple, the argument +to ``detachInterrupt()`` is the *pin* on which the interrupt is +attached, while on the Arduino, the argument is the *interrupt +number*, which is different from the pin the interrupt is enabled on. + +If you're calling this function, you've already called +:ref:`lang-attachinterrupt` to set up your interrupt handler, so +just call ``detachInterrupt()`` with the same pin argument you gave to +``attachInterrupt()``. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`attachInterrupt() ` + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/digitalread.rst b/docs/source/lang/digitalread.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..71583ca --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/digitalread.rst @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-digitalread: + +digitalRead() +============= + +Description +----------- + +Reads the value from a specified digital pin, either :ref:`HIGH +` or :ref:`LOW `. + + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: digitalRead + + +Example +------- + +The following example turns the LED on when the button is pressed:: + + int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to Maple pin 13 + int buttonPin = 38; // BUT connected to Maple pin 38 + + void setup() { + pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); + pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); + } + + void loop() { + int val = digitalRead(buttonPin); // reads the input pin + digitalWrite(ledPin, val); + } + +Note +---- + +If the pin isn't connected to anything, ``digitalRead()`` can return +either HIGH or LOW (and this can change in a way that seems random). + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple version of ``digitalRead()`` is compatible with Arduino. + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`pinMode ` +- :ref:`digitalWrite ` + + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/digitalwrite.rst b/docs/source/lang/digitalwrite.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..419ef3a --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/digitalwrite.rst @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +.. _lang-digitalwrite: + +digitalWrite() +============== + +Description +----------- + +Write a `HIGH `_ or a +`LOW `_ value to a +digital pin. + + + +If the pin has been configured as an OUTPUT with +`pinMode `_\ (), its voltage +will be set to the corresponding value: 5V (or 3.3V on 3.3V boards) +for HIGH, 0V (ground) for LOW. + + + +If the pin is configured as an INPUT, writing a HIGH value with +digitalWrite() will enable an internal 20K pullup resistor (see the +`tutorial on digital pins `_). +Writing LOW will disable the pullup. The pullup resistor is enough +to light an LED dimly, so if LEDs appear to work, but very dimly, +this is a likely cause. The remedy is to set the pin to an output +with the pinMode() function. + + + +**NOTE:** Digital pin 13 is harder to use as a digital input than +the other digital pins because it has an LED and resistor attached +to it that's soldered to the board on most boards. If you enable +its internal 20k pull-up resistor, it will hang at around 1.7 V +instead of the expected 5V because the onboard LED and series +resistor pull the voltage level down, meaning it always returns +LOW. If you must use pin 13 as a digital input, use an external +pull down resistor. + + + +Syntax +------ + +digitalWrite(pin, value) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +pin: the pin number + + + +value: `HIGH `_ or +`LOW `_ + + + +Returns +------- + +none + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + + int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 + + void setup() + { + pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output + } + + void loop() + { + digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on + delay(1000); // waits for a second + digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off + delay(1000); // waits for a second + } + + + +Sets pin 13 to HIGH, makes a one-second-long delay, and sets the +pin back to LOW. + + + +Note +---- + +The analog input pins can be used as digital pins, referred to as +A0, A1, etc. + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `pinMode `_\ () +- `digitalRead `_\ () +- `Tutorial: Digital Pins `_ + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/double.rst b/docs/source/lang/double.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4a1219 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/double.rst @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +.. _lang-double: + +double +====== + +Description +----------- + +Double precision floating point number. Occupies 8 bytes. On Maple, +the ``double`` type has a range of approximately -1.79769×10^308 to +1.79769×10^308; the ``double`` type subject to the same :ref:`overflow +issues ` as any numeric data type. + +Floating point numbers are not exact, and may yield strange results +when compared. For example ``6.0 / 3.0`` may not equal ``2.0``. You +should instead check that the absolute value of the difference between +the numbers is less than some small number. + +Floating point math is also much slower than integer math in +performing calculations, so should be avoided if, for example, a loop +has to run at top speed for a critical timing function. Programmers +often go to some lengths to convert floating point calculations to +integer math to increase speed. + +For more information, see the `Wikipedia article on floating point +math `_\ . + +Floating-point numbers represent numbers with "decimal point", unlike +integral types, which always represent whole numbers. Floating-point +numbers are often used to approximate analog and continuous values +because they have greater resolution than integers. + +The double implementation on the Maple uses twice the number of bytes +as a :ref:`float `, with the corresponding gains in +precision. + +Tip +--- + +Users who borrow code from other sources that includes ``double`` +variables may wish to examine the code to see if the implied range and +precision are different from that actually achieved on the Maple. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`float ` + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/doublecast.rst b/docs/source/lang/doublecast.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ea1776 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/doublecast.rst @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-doublecast: + +double() (cast) +=============== + +Description +----------- + +Converts a value to the :ref:`double ` floating point +data type. Here is an example:: + + int x = 2; + double d = double(x); // d now holds 2.0, a double value + +The value ``x`` can be of any type. However, if ``x`` is not a number +(like an ``int`` or ``long``), you will get strange results. + +See the :ref:`double ` reference for details about the +precision and limitations of ``double`` values on the Maple. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`double ` +- :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`float() ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/dowhile.rst b/docs/source/lang/dowhile.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..77e02a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/dowhile.rst @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-dowhile: + +do/while Loop +============= + +A ``do`` loop works in the same manner as a :ref:`while +` loop, with the exception that the condition is tested +at the end of the loop, so the ``do`` loop will *always* run at least +once. + +This is the basic syntax:: + + do { + // statement block + } while (test condition); + +Example:: + + do { + delay(50); // wait for sensors to stabilize + x = readSensors(); // check the sensors + } while (x < 100); + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/else.rst b/docs/source/lang/else.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..863f21b --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/else.rst @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-else: + +if/else +======= + +``if``/\ ``else`` allows greater control over the flow of code than +the basic :ref:`if ` statement, by allowing multiple tests +to be grouped together. For example, an :ref:`analog input +` could be tested, with one action taken if the +input was less than 500, and another action taken if the input was 500 +or greater. The code would look like this:: + + if (pinFiveInput < 500) { + // action A + } else { + // action B + } + +``else`` can precede another ``if`` test, so that multiple, mutually +exclusive tests can be run at the same time. + +Each test will proceed to the next one until a true test is +encountered. When a true test is found, its associated block of code +is run, and the program then skips to the line following the entire +if/else construction. If no test proves to be true, the default +``else`` block is executed, if one is present, and sets the default +behavior. + + +Note that an ``else if`` block may be used with or without a +terminating ``else`` block, and vice-versa. An unlimited number of +such ``else if`` branches is allowed. Here is a code example:: + + if (pinFiveInput < 500) { + // do Thing A + } else if (pinFiveInput >= 1000) { + // do Thing B + } else { + // do Thing C + } + +Another way to express branching, mutually exclusive tests, is with a +:ref:`switch/case ` statement. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`if ` +- :ref:`switch/case ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/enum.rst b/docs/source/lang/enum.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ecd99c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/enum.rst @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +.. _lang-enum: + +enum +==== + +Stub. + +Reference this from language.rst diff --git a/docs/source/lang/float.rst b/docs/source/lang/float.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef1a339 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/float.rst @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-float: + +float +===== + +Description +----------- + +Single-precision floating point number. Occupies 4 bytes. On Maple, +the ``float`` type has a range of approximately -3.40282×10^38 to +3.40282×10^38; the ``float`` type is subject to the same +:ref:`overflow issues ` as any numeric data +type. + +``float``\ s have only 6-7 decimal digits of precision. That means the +total number of digits, not the number to the right of the decimal +point. You can get more precision by using a :ref:`double +` (which has a precision of about 16 decimal digits). + +The following example declares a ``float`` value named ``myfloat``:: + + float myfloat; + +This example declares a ``float`` value named ``sensorCalibrate``, +with value 1.117:: + + float sensorCalibrate = 1.117; + +The general syntax for declaring a float named ``var`` with value +``val`` is:: + + float var = val; + +Here is a more extended example involving a :ref:`float cast +`:: + + int x; + int y; + float z; + + x = 1; + y = x / 2; // y now contains 0, ints can't hold fractions + z = float(x) / 2; // z now contains .5 + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`double ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/floatcast.rst b/docs/source/lang/floatcast.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7476188 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/floatcast.rst @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-floatcast: + +float() (cast) +============== + +Description +----------- + +Converts a value to the :ref:`float ` data type. Here +is an example (see the :ref:`constants reference +` for an explanation of the "2.0f"):: + + int x = 2; + float f = float(x); // f now holds 2.0f, a float value + +The value ``x`` can be of any type. However, if ``x`` is not a number +(like an ``int``), you will get strange results. + +See the :ref:`float ` reference for details about the +precision and limitations of ``float`` values on the Maple. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`double ` +- :ref:`double() ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/for.rst b/docs/source/lang/for.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6b00d7a --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/for.rst @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-for: + +for Loops +========= + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Description +----------- + +A ``for`` loop is used to repeat a block of statements enclosed in +curly braces. ``for`` loops are useful for performing repetitive +operations, and are often used in combination with :ref:`arrays +` to operate on collections of data or multiple +:ref:`pins `. A ``for`` loop is composed of two parts: first, a +*header*, which sets up the for loop, and then a *body*, which is made +up of lines of code enclosed in curly braces. + +There are three parts to the ``for`` loop header: an *initialization* +expression, *loop condition* expression, and a *post-loop* +expression. The general syntax looks like this:: + + for (initialization; condition; post-loop) { + // all of these lines inside the curly braces are part + // of the loop body. + statement 1; + statement 2; + ... + } + +(Note that there is no semicolon after the post-loop). The +initialization happens first and exactly once, before the loop begins. +Each time through the loop, the condition is tested. The condition is +a :ref:`boolean ` expression. If it is true, then the +list of statements inside the curly braces are executed. Next, the +post-loop is executed. The loop then begins again by evaluating the +condition again, entering the loop body if it is true. This proceeds +until the condition becomes false. + +Examples +-------- + +Here's an example:: + + // Dim an LED using a PWM pin + int pwmPin = 9; // LED in series with 470 ohm resistor on pin 9 + + void setup() { + pinMode(pwmPin, PWM); + } + + void loop() { + for (int i=0; i <= 65535; i++) { + pwmWrite(pwmPin, i); + delay(1); + } + } + +There is a ``for`` loop In the :ref:`loop() ` function of +the above example. This loop starts by declaring an ``int`` variable +named ``i``, whose value starts out at zero. The loop proceeds by +checking if ``i`` is less than or equal to 65535. Since ``i`` is +zero, this is true, and so the calls to :ref:`pwmWrite() +` and :ref:`delay() ` happen next. At this +point, the post-loop expression ``i++`` is evaluated, which +:ref:`increments ` ``i``, so that ``i`` becomes one. +That concludes the first time through the loop. Each "time through +the loop" is referred to as an *iteration*. + +The loop then jumps back to the beginning, checking the condition as +the beginning of its second iteration (initialization is skipped, +since this only happens once, before the first iteration). One is +less than 65535, so the loop statements are executed again. This +proceeds over and over until the iteration when ``i`` finally +reaches 65536. At that point, the condition is no longer true, so the +loop stops executing, and the ``loop()`` function returns. + +Here's another example, using a ``for`` loop to brighten and fade an +LED (see the :ref:`pwmWrite() ` reference for more +information):: + + int pwmPin = 9; // hook up the LED to pin 9 + void loop() { + int x = 1; + for (int i = 0; i >= 0; i += x) { + analogWrite(pwmPin, i); // controls the brightness of the LED + if (i == 65535) { + x = -1; // switch direction, so i starts decreasing + } + delay(1); + } + } + +Coding Tips +----------- + +The C ``for`` loop is more flexible than ``for`` loops found in some +other computer languages, including BASIC. Any or all of the three +header elements may be left blank, although the semicolons are +required. Also the statements for initialization, condition, and +post-loop can be any valid C statements, and use any C datatypes, +including :ref:`floating point numbers `. These types +of unusual ``for`` loops sometimes provide solutions to less-common +programming problems. + +For example, using a multiplication in the post-loop line will +generate a `geometric progression +`_:: + + for(int x = 1; x <= 100; x = x * 2) { + SerialUSB.println(x); + } + + +This loop prints out the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 64. Check +your understanding of ``for`` loops by answering the following two +questions (answers are in footnote [#fanswers]_\ ): + +1. How many iterations occur before the loop finishes? + +2. Why does it stop at 64? + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`while ` loops +- :ref:`do ` loops + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#fanswers] + 1. Seven. + + 2. After the seventh iteration, the post-loop causes ``x`` to + equal 128. This is larger than 100, so the loop condition is + false, and the loop stops. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/goto.rst b/docs/source/lang/goto.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..96a6262 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/goto.rst @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-goto: + +Labels and goto +=============== + +A *label* gives a name to a line of code within a function. You can +label a line by writing a name for it, then a colon (``:``), before +the line starts. The ``goto`` keyword allows program flow to transfer +to a labeled line from anywhere within the same function. + +.. warning:: The use of ``goto`` is discouraged in C and C++ + programming. It is *never necessary* to use ``goto`` to write a + program. + + Unless you know what you're doing, using ``goto`` tends to + encourage code which is harder to debug and understand than + programs without ``goto`` that do the same thing. That said, + however, it's sometimes useful; :ref:`see below ` + for a concrete example. + +Using Labels and goto +--------------------- + +Labels and ``goto`` are probably best explained through example. +Let's start with an example of how to label lines. The first line +(``int x = analogRead(some_pin);``) in the :ref:`loop ` +function below has label ``readpin``. The third line (``delay(x);``) +has label ``startdelay``. The second line (``SerialUSB.println(x);``) +does not have a label:: + + void loop() { + readpin: + int x = analogRead(some_pin); + SerialUSB.println(x); // for debugging + startdelay: + delay(x); + // ... more code ... + } + +Anything which can be a :ref:`variable ` name can +be a label. + +Let's say that we wanted to print ``x`` only if it was very large, say +at least 2000. We might want to do this just so anybody watching on a +:ref:`serial monitor ` would know they were in for +a longer wait than usual. We can accomplish this through the use of a +``goto`` statement that skips the printing if ``x`` is less than +2000:: + + void loop() { + readpin: + int x = analogRead(some_pin); + if (x < 2000) { + goto startdelay; + } + SerialUSB.println(x); // for debugging + startdelay: + delay(x); + // ... more code ... + } + +In this modified program, whenever ``x`` is less than 2000, the body +of the :ref:`if ` statement in the second line is +executed. The ``goto`` statement inside the ``if`` body skips +straight to the line labeled ``startdelay``, passing over the line +doing the printing. + +A ``goto`` does not have to "move forwards"; it can go "backwards", +too. For example, the following program prints "5" forever (why?):: + + void loop() { + printfive: + SerialUSB.println(5); + goto printfive; + SerialUSB.println(6); + } + +.. _goto-when-to-use: + +When to Use goto +---------------- + +As mentioned above, use of ``goto`` is `generally discouraged +`_. However, +when used with care, ``goto`` can simplify certain programs. One +important use case for ``goto`` is breaking out of deeply nested +:ref:`for ` loops or :ref:`if ` logic blocks. +Here's an example:: + + for(int r = 0; r < 255; r++) { + for(int g = 255; g > -1; g--) { + for(int b = 0; b < 255; b++) { + if (analogRead(0) > 250) { + goto bailout; + } + // more statements ... + } + // innermost loop ends here + } + } + bailout: + // more code here + +In the above example, whenever the :ref:`analog reading +` on pin 0 was greater than 250, the program would +jump to the line labeled ``bailout``, exiting all three loops at once. + +While there is already a :ref:`break ` keyword for +breaking out of a loop, it will only break out of the *innermost* +loop. So, if instead of saying "``goto bailout;``", there was a +"``break;``" instead, the program would only exit from the loop with +header "``for(int b = 0; b < 255; b++)``". The program would continue +at the line which reads "``// innermost loop ends here``", which is +clearly undesirable if you wanted to leave all three loops at once. + +More examples of when ``goto`` is a good choice are given in Donald +Knuth's paper, "Structured Programming with go to Statements"; see +below for a link. + +See Also +-------- + +- Dijkstra, Edsger W. `Go To Statement Considered Harmful `_ (PDF) + +- Knuth, Donald. `Structured Programming with go to Statements `_ (PDF) + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/highbyte.rst b/docs/source/lang/highbyte.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af0bfcd --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/highbyte.rst @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +.. _lang-highbyte: + +highByte(x) +=========== + +.. warning:: This macro is provided for compatibility with Arduino + only. It returns the second-least significant byte in an integral + value. It makes sense to call this the "high" byte on a 16-bit + ``int`` microcontroller like the Atmel chips on Arduinos, but it + makes no sense at all on a 32-bit microcontroller like the STM32s + in the Maple line. + + In short: we provide this so that existing Arduino code works as + expected, but **strongly discourage its use** in new programs. + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Extracts the second lowest byte of an integral data type. + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: a value of any integral type. + +Returns +------- + +Second lowest byte in **x**. + +Example +------- + +:: + + int x = 0xDEADBEEF; + SerialUSB.println(x, HEX); // prints "BE" + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple version of ``highByte()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`lowByte() ` + + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/if.rst b/docs/source/lang/if.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..02ba1e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/if.rst @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-if: + +if Statements +============= + +An ``if`` statement is used to execute code when certain conditions +are met. The general syntax for an ``if`` statement is:: + + if (condition) { + body + } + +An ``if`` statement first tests whether its *condition* is true (such +as an input being above a certain number). If the condition is true, +the ``if`` statement executes its *body*, which is made up of lines of +code inside :ref:`curly braces `. If the condition is +false, the body is not executed. Here's a more concrete example:: + + if (someVariable > 50) { + // do something here + } + +The program tests to see if ``someVariable`` is greater than 50. If it +is, the program executes every line in the curly braces (which in the +above example does nothing, since the body is just the :ref:`comment +` line "``// do something here``"). + +Put another way, if the statement in parentheses is true, the +statements inside the braces are run. If not, the program skips over +the code. + +An ``if`` statement's condition (which is inside the parentheses after +``if``) often uses one or more :ref:`boolean ` or +:ref:`comparison ` operators. + +Writing the if Body +------------------- + +The brackets may be omitted after an ``if`` statement's +conditional. If this is done, the next line (which ends in a +semicolon) becomes the only line in the body. The following three +``if`` statements all do the same thing:: + + if (x > 120) digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); + + if (x > 120) + digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); + + if (x > 120) { + digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); + } + +However, the following two examples are different:: + + // example 1: two lines of code in the if body + if (x > 120) { + digitalWrite(ledPin1, HIGH); + digitalWrite(ledPin2, HIGH); + } + + // example 2: one line of code in the if body, and + // another line of code after the if statement + if (x > 120) + digitalWrite(ledPin1, HIGH); // this is in the if body + digitalWrite(ledPin2, HIGH); // this is NOT in the if body + +In the first example, since the body is enclosed in curly braces, both +lines are included. In the second example, since the curly braces are +missing, only the first line is in the ``if`` body. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`boolean operators ` +- :ref:`comparison operators ` +- :ref:`else ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/include.rst b/docs/source/lang/include.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a8bc74c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/include.rst @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-include: + +#include +======== + +``#include`` is used to include outside libraries in your sketch. +This gives the programmer access to a large group of standard C +libraries (groups of pre-made functions and data types), and also +libraries written especially for Maple. + +Example +------- + +This example (from the `Arduino LiquidCrystal Tutorial +`_) includes a library +that is used to control :ref:`LCD displays `:: + + // include the library code: + #include + + // initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins + LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2); + + void setup() { + // set up the LCD's number of columns and rows: + lcd.begin(16, 2); + // Print a message to the LCD. + lcd.print("hello, world!"); + } + + void loop() { + // set the cursor to column 0, line 1 + // (note: line 1 is the second row, since counting begins with 0): + lcd.setCursor(0, 1); + // print the number of seconds since reset: + lcd.print(millis()/1000); + } + +Note that a ``#include`` line, like :ref:`#define `, +has **no semicolon**. The compiler will print strange error messages +if you add one. + +C Standard Library +------------------ + +The standard C library that comes with Maple is called `newlib +`_. Its main sources of documentation +are its `main reference `_ +page and its `math functions +`_ reference page. Here's an +example that imports the math.h library in order to take the `cube +root `_ of a number:: + + #include + + void setup() { + // no setup necessary + } + + void loop() { + // "cbrt" stands for "cube root" + double cubeRootOf3 = cbrt(3.0); + // prints a number that is approximately the cube root of 3: + SerialUSB.println(cubeRootOf3); + } + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/increment.rst b/docs/source/lang/increment.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5536a0a --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/increment.rst @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-increment: + +Increment (``++``) and Decrement (``--``) +========================================= + +These operators increment (add one to) or decrement (subtract one +from) a variable. If they come before the variable, they return its +new value; otherwise, they return its old value. + +Some quick examples:: + + x++; // adds one to x, and returns the old value of x + ++x; // adds one to x, and returns the new value of x + + x--; // decrement x by one and returns the old value of x + --x; // decrement x by one and returns the new value of x + +A more extended example:: + + x = 2; + y = ++x; // x now contains 3, y contains 3 + y = x--; // x contains 2 again, y still contains 3 + +.. warning:: Be careful! You cannot put a space in between the two + ``+`` or ``-`` signs. This example is broken:: + + // this line won't compile (notice the extra space): + int y = x+ +; + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: an integer value (like an ``int``, ``long``, ``unsigned int``, +etc.). + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`Compound arithmetic operators ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/int.rst b/docs/source/lang/int.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac2f16a --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/int.rst @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-int: + +int +=== + +Description +----------- + +The ``int`` data type represents integers. Integers are your primary +data type for number storage, and store a 4 byte value. This yields a +range of -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 (minimum value of -2^31 and a +maximum value of (2^31) - 1; that's about negative 2 billion to +positive 2 billion). + +An ``int`` stores a negative number with a technique called `two's +complement math +`_\ . +The highest bit in an ``int``, sometimes refered to as the "sign" bit, +flags the number as a negative number. (See the linked article on +two's complement for more information). + +The Maple takes care of dealing with negative numbers for you, so that +arithmetic operations work mostly as you'd expect. There can be an +:ref:`unexpected complication ` in +dealing with the :ref:`bitshift right operator (>>) +`, however. + +Here is an example of declaring an ``int`` variable named ``ledPin``, +then giving it value 13:: + + int ledPin = 13; + +The general syntax for declaring an ``int`` variable named ``var``, +then giving it value ``val``, looks like:: + + int var = val; + +.. _lang-int-overflow: + +Integer Overflow +---------------- + +When ``int`` variables leave the range specified above, they +:ref:`roll over ` in the other direction. +Here are some examples:: + + int x; + x = -2,147,483,648; + x--; // x now contains 2,147,483,647; rolled over "left to right" + + x = 2,147,483,647; + x++; // x now contains -2,147,483,648; rolled over "right to left" + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`unsigned int ` +- :ref:`char ` +- :ref:`unsigned char ` +- :ref:`long ` +- :ref:`unsigned long ` +- :ref:`Integer Constants ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/intcast.rst b/docs/source/lang/intcast.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..03c0c07 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/intcast.rst @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-intcast: + +int() +===== + +Description +----------- + +Converts a value to the :ref:`int ` data type. Here is +an example:: + + double d = 2.5; + int i = int(d); // i holds "2", an int value + +The value inside of the parentheses (``int(...)``) can be of any type. +However, if it is not a numeric type (like ``double``, ``char``, +etc.), you will get strange results. + +See the :ref:`int ` reference for details about the +precision and limitations of ``int`` variables on the Maple. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`int ` + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/interrupts.rst b/docs/source/lang/interrupts.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ca7041 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/interrupts.rst @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +.. _lang-interrupts: + +interrupts() +============ + +Description +----------- + +Re-enables interrupts (after they've been disabled by +`noInterrupts `_\ ()). +Interrupts allow certain important tasks to happen in the +background and are enabled by default. Some functions will not work +while interrupts are disabled, and incoming communication may be +ignored. Interrupts can slightly disrupt the timing of code, +however, and may be disabled for particularly critical sections of +code. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +None + + + +Returns +------- + +None + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + void setup() {} + + void loop() + { + noInterrupts(); + // critical, time-sensitive code here + interrupts(); + // other code here + } + + + +See Also +-------- + + +- `noInterrupts `_\ () +- `attachInterrupt `_\ () +- `detachInterrupt `_\ () + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/keywords.rst b/docs/source/lang/keywords.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..451701e --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/keywords.rst @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +.. _lang-keywords: + +Keywords +======== + +Stub. + +Include list of all C++ keywords, with links to internal documentation +as appropriate. + +Reference this page from language.rst diff --git a/docs/source/lang/long.rst b/docs/source/lang/long.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8a19b2b --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/long.rst @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-long: + +long +==== + +Description +----------- + +The ``long`` data type stores extended size integer values. You can +use a ``long`` when your values are too large to fit into an :ref:`int +`. A ``long`` occupies 8 bytes of memory. This yields a +range of approximately -9.2×10^18 to 9.2×10^18 (that's 9.2 billion +billion, or about 92 million times the number of stars in the Milky +Way galaxy). The exact range of a ``long`` on the Maple is from +-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807, or -2^63 to +(2^63-1). A ``long`` it is subject to the same :ref:`overflow issues +` as any numeric data type. + +Here's an example of declaring a long (see :ref:`integer constants +` for an explanation of the "L" at the end of the +number):: + + // Speed of light in nanometers per second (approximate). + long c = 299792458000000000L; + +The general syntax for declaring an ``long`` variable named ``var``, +then giving it value ``val``, looks like:: + + long var = val; + +This is identical to the ``int`` syntax, with ``long`` replacing +``int``. + +Note that ``long`` values will still :ref:`overflow +`, just like ``int`` values, but their much +larger range makes this less likely to happen. + +The downside to using a ``long`` instead of an ``int`` (besides the +extra storage) is that :ref:`arithmetic ` operations +on ``long``\ s will take slightly longer than on ``int``\ s. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`char ` +- :ref:`unsigned char ` +- :ref:`int ` +- :ref:`unsigned int ` +- :ref:`unsigned long ` +- :ref:`Integer Constants ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/longcast.rst b/docs/source/lang/longcast.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..16d7582 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/longcast.rst @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-longcast: + +long() +====== + +Description +----------- + +Converts a value to the :ref:`long ` data type. Here is +an example:: + + double d = 2.5; + long i = long(d); // i holds "2L", an long value + +The value inside of the parentheses (``long(...)``) can be of any type. +However, if it is not a numeric type (like ``double``, ``char``, +etc.), you will get strange results. + +See the :ref:`long ` reference for details about the +precision and limitations of ``long`` variables on the Maple. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`long ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/loop.rst b/docs/source/lang/loop.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8f6183 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/loop.rst @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-loop: + +loop() +====== + +After creating a :ref:`setup() ` function, which +initializes your sketch, the ``loop()`` function gets called +repeatedly, allowing your program to change and respond. Use it to +actively control your Maple board. + +Example +------- + +:: + + + int buttonPin = 38; + + // setup initializes serial and the button pin + void setup() { + SerialUSB.begin(); + pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); + } + + // loop() checks the button pin each time it executes, + // and will print 'H' if it is pressed, 'L' otherwise + void loop() { + if (digitalRead(buttonPin) == HIGH) { + SerialUSB.println('H'); + } else { + SerialUSB.println('L'); + } + + delay(1000); + } + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`setup() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/lowbyte.rst b/docs/source/lang/lowbyte.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9fb711 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/lowbyte.rst @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +.. _lang-lowbyte: + +lowByte() +========= + +Description +----------- + +Extracts the low-order (rightmost) byte of a variable (e.g. a +word). + + + +Syntax +------ + +lowByte(x) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +x: a value of any type + + + +Returns +------- + +byte + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `highByte `_\ () +- `word `_\ () + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/map.rst b/docs/source/lang/map.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..40b12a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/map.rst @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ +.. _lang-map: + +map(value, fromLow, fromHigh, toLow, toHigh) +============================================ + +Description +----------- + +Re-maps a number from one range to another. That is, a **value** of +**fromLow** would get mapped to **toLow**, a value of **fromHigh** +to **toHigh**, values in-between to values in-between, etc. + + + +Does not constrain values to within the range, because out-of-range +values are sometimes intended and useful. The constrain() function +may be used either before or after this function, if limits to the +ranges are desired. + + + +Note that the "lower bounds" of either range may be larger or +smaller than the "upper bounds" so the map() function may be used +to reverse a range of numbers, for example + + + +``y = map(x, 1, 50, 50, 1);`` + + + +The function also handles negative numbers well, so that this +example + + + +``y = map(x, 1, 50, 50, -100);`` + + + +is also valid and works well. + + + +The map() function uses integer math so will not generate +fractions, when the math might indicate that it should do so. +Fractional remainders are truncated, and are not rounded or +averaged. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +value: the number to map + + + +fromLow: the lower bound of the value's current range + + + +fromHigh: the upper bound of the value's current range + + + +toLow: the lower bound of the value's target range + + + +toHigh: the upper bound of the value's target range + + + +Returns +------- + +The mapped value. + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + /* Map an analog value to 8 bits (0 to 255) */ + void setup() {} + + void loop() + { + int val = analogRead(0); + val = map(val, 0, 1023, 0, 255); + analogWrite(9, val); + } + + + +Appendix +~~~~~~~~ + +For the mathematically inclined, here's the whole function + + + +:: + + long map(long x, long in_min, long in_max, long out_min, long out_max) + { + return (x - in_min) * (out_max - out_min) / (in_max - in_min) + out_min; + } + + + +See Also +-------- + + +- `constrain `_\ () + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/max.rst b/docs/source/lang/max.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7dbf6a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/max.rst @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-max: + +max(x, y) +========= + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Calculates the maximum of two numbers. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: the first number; may be any number or numeric expression. + +**y**: the second number; may be any number or numeric expression. + + +Returns +------- + +The larger of the two parameter values. + +Example +------- + +:: + + sensVal = max(senVal, 20); // assigns sensVal to the larger of sensVal or 20 + // (effectively ensuring that it is at least 20) + +.. note:: Perhaps counter-intuitively, max() is often used to + constrain the lower end of a variable's range, while :ref:`min() + ` is used to constrain the upper end of the range. + +Warning +------- + +Because of the way ``max()`` is implemented, avoid using other +functions inside the parentheses. It may lead to incorrect results:: + + max(a--, 0); // avoid this - yields incorrect results + + a--; // use this instead - + max(a, 0); // keep other operations outside max() + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple version of ``max()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`min() ` +- :ref:`constrain() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/micros.rst b/docs/source/lang/micros.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..711c013 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/micros.rst @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +.. _lang-micros: + +micros() +======== + +Description +----------- + +Returns the number of microseconds since the Arduino board began +running the current program. This number will overflow (go back to +zero), after approximately 70 minutes. On 16 MHz Arduino boards +(e.g. Duemilanove and Nano), this function has a resolution of four +microseconds (i.e. the value returned is always a multiple of +four). On 8 MHz Arduino boards (e.g. the LilyPad), this function +has a resolution of eight microseconds. + + + +*Note*: there are 1,000 microseconds in a millisecond and 1,000,000 +microseconds in a second. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +None + + + +Returns +------- + +Number of microseconds since the program started (*unsigned long*) + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + unsigned long time; + + void setup(){ + Serial.begin(9600); + } + void loop(){ + Serial.print("Time: "); + time = micros(); + //prints time since program started + Serial.println(time); + // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data + delay(1000); + } + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `millis `_\ () +- `delay `_\ () +- `delayMicroseconds `_\ () + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/millis.rst b/docs/source/lang/millis.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6ebfff5 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/millis.rst @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +.. _lang-millis: + +millis() +======== + +Description +----------- + +Returns the number of milliseconds since the Arduino board began +running the current program. This number will overflow (go back to +zero), after approximately 50 days. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +None + + + +Returns +------- + +Number of milliseconds since the program started (*unsigned long*) + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + unsigned long time; + + void setup(){ + Serial.begin(9600); + } + void loop(){ + Serial.print("Time: "); + time = millis(); + //prints time since program started + Serial.println(time); + // wait a second so as not to send massive amounts of data + delay(1000); + } + + + +Tip: +---- + +Note that the parameter for millis is an unsigned long, errors may +be generated if a programmer tries to do math with other datatypes +such as ints. + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `micros `_\ () +- `delay `_\ () +- `delayMicroseconds `_\ () +- `Tutorial: Blink Without Delay `_ + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/min.rst b/docs/source/lang/min.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ffbf1ee --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/min.rst @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-min: + +min(x, y) +========= + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) Calculates the minimum of two numbers. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +**x**: the first number; may be any number or numeric expression. + +**y**: the second number; may be any number or numeric expression. + + +Returns +------- + +The smaller of the two numbers. + + +Example +------- + +:: + + sensVal = min(sensVal, 100); // assigns sensVal to the smaller of sensVal or 100 + // ensuring that it never gets above 100. + + +.. note:: Perhaps counter-intuitively, max() is often used to + constrain the lower end of a variable's range, while min() is used + to constrain the upper end of the range. + + +Warning +------- + +Because of the way ``min()`` is implemented, avoid using other +functions inside the parentheses. It may lead to incorrect results:: + + min(a++, 100); // avoid this - yields incorrect results + + a++; // use this instead - + min(a, 100); // keep other operations outside min() + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple version of ``min()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`max() ` +- :ref:`constrain() ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/modulo.rst b/docs/source/lang/modulo.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e0dabd --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/modulo.rst @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-modulo: + +% (modulo) +========== + +Description +----------- + +Calculates the `remainder `_ +when one integer is divided by another. It is useful for keeping a +variable within a particular range (e.g. the size of an array). + +Syntax +------ + +:: + + result = dividend % divisor + + + +Parameters +---------- + +**dividend**: the number to be divided + +**divisor**: the number to divide by + +Returns +------- + +The remainder of **dividend**\ /\ **divisor**\ . + +Examples +-------- + +:: + + int x; + x = 7 % 5; // x now contains 2 + x = 9 % 5; // x now contains 4 + x = 5 % 5; // x now contains 0 + x = 4 % 5; // x now contains 4 + +:: + + /* update one value in an array each time through a loop */ + + int values[10]; + int i = 0; + + void setup() { + // no setup necessary + } + + void loop() { + values[i] = analogRead(0); + i = (i + 1) % 10; // modulo operator makes sure i stays between 0 and 9 + } + +Tip +--- + +The modulo operator does not work on floats. For that, you can use +the C standard library function `fmod() +`_. + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`Arithmetic ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/nointerrupts.rst b/docs/source/lang/nointerrupts.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2043c91 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/nointerrupts.rst @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +.. _lang-nointerrupts: + +noInterrupts() +============== + +Description +----------- + +Disables interrupts (you can re-enable them with interrupts()). +Interrupts allow certain important tasks to happen in the +background and are enabled by default. Some functions will not work +while interrupts are disabled, and incoming communication may be +ignored. Interrupts can slightly disrupt the timing of code, +however, and may be disabled for particularly critical sections of +code. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +None. + + + +Returns +------- + +None. + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + void setup() {} + + void loop() + { + noInterrupts(); + // critical, time-sensitive code here + interrupts(); + // other code here + } + + + +See Also +-------- + + +- `interrupts `_\ () + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/notone.rst b/docs/source/lang/notone.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22432e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/notone.rst @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +.. _lang-notone: + +noTone() +======== + +Description +----------- + +Stops the generation of a square wave triggered by +`tone `_\ (). Has no effect if +no tone is being generated. + + + +**NOTE:** if you want to play different pitches on multiple pins, +you need to call noTone() on one pin before calling tone() on the +next pin. + + + +Syntax +------ + +noTone(pin) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +pin: the pin on which to stop generating the tone + + + +Returns +------- + +nothing + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `tone `_ () + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/pinmode.rst b/docs/source/lang/pinmode.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aed23d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/pinmode.rst @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-pinmode: + +pinMode() +========= + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: pinMode + +.. doxygenenum:: WiringPinMode + +Discussion +---------- + +pinMode() is usually called within :ref:`lang-setup` in order to +configure a pin for a certain usage (although it may be called +anywhere). + + +Example +------- + + :: + + + int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13 + + void setup() + { + pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output + } + + void loop() + { + digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on + delay(1000); // waits for a second + digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off + delay(1000); // waits for a second + } + + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The libmaple implementation of pinMode() supports OUTPUT and INPUT +modes with a meaning identical to that of the Arduino function. + +INPUT_ANALOG and PWM modes were added because the Maple does not +distinguish between analog and digital pins the same way the Arduino +does. Unlike the Arduino, you **must call pinMode**\ () to set up a pin +for these purposes before a call to, e.g., :ref:`lang-analogRead`. +In practice, this should only add a few lines of pinMode() calls to +your :ref:`lang-setup` function. + +OUTPUT_OPEN_DRAIN, INPUT_PULLUP, INPUT_PULLDOWN, and PWM_OPEN_DRAIN +modes represent functionality not currently available on Arduino +boards. + +See also +-------- + +- :ref:`lang-constants` +- :ref:`lang-digitalwrite` +- :ref:`lang-digitalread` +- Maple :ref:`GPIO ` reference page + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/pointer.rst b/docs/source/lang/pointer.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc48d7d --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/pointer.rst @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +.. _lang-pointer: + +The pointer operators: & (reference) and \* (dereference) +========================================================= + + +Pointers are one of the more complicated subjects for beginners in +learning C, and it is possible to write the vast majority of +Arduino sketches without ever encountering pointers. However for +manipulating certain data structures, the use of pointers can +simplify the code, and and knowledge of manipulating pointers is +handy to have in one's toolkit. + +Introducing pointers is somewhat outside the scope of this +documentation. However, a good `pointer tutorial +`_ is available. +Also see the `Wikipedia article on pointers +`_, especially +the section on `pointers in C +`_. + +See Also +======== + +- http://xkcd.com/138/ + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/pow.rst b/docs/source/lang/pow.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dbe89b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/pow.rst @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +.. _lang-pow: + +pow(base, exponent) +=================== + +Calculates the value of a number raised to a power. + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: pow + +Example +------- + +``pow()`` can be used to raise a number to a fractional power. This +is useful for e.g. generating exponential mapping of values or +curves. See the `fscale `_ +function in the Arduino playground for more on this. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`sqrt() ` +- :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`double ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/pulsein.rst b/docs/source/lang/pulsein.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7bbe84c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/pulsein.rst @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +.. _lang-pulsein: + +pulseIn() +========= + +Description +----------- + +Reads a pulse (either HIGH or LOW) on a pin. For example, if +**value** is **HIGH**, **pulseIn()** waits for the pin to go +**HIGH**, starts timing, then waits for the pin to go **LOW** and +stops timing. Returns the length of the pulse in microseconds. +Gives up and returns 0 if no pulse starts within a specified time +out. + + + +The timing of this function has been determined empirically and +will probably show errors in longer pulses. Works on pulses from 10 +microseconds to 3 minutes in length. + + + +Syntax +------ + +pulseIn(pin, value) +pulseIn(pin, value, timeout) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +pin: the number of the pin on which you want to read the pulse. +(*int*) + + + +value: type of pulse to read: either +`HIGH `_ or +`LOW `_. (*int*) + + + +timeout (optional): the number of microseconds to wait for the +pulse to start; default is one second (*unsigned long*) + + + +Returns +------- + +the length of the pulse (in microseconds) or 0 if no pulse started +before the timeout (*unsigned long*) + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + + + int pin = 7; + unsigned long duration; + + void setup() + { + pinMode(pin, INPUT); + } + + void loop() + { + duration = pulseIn(pin, HIGH); + } + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/pwmwrite.rst b/docs/source/lang/pwmwrite.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..acc0240 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/pwmwrite.rst @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-pwmwrite: + +pwmWrite() +========== + +Writes a :ref:`PWM wave ` to a pin. You can use this to make an +LED get brighter or dimmer, control a servomotor, etc. After a call to +pwmWrite(), the pin will output a steady square wave with the given +duty cycle. You can change the duty cycle later by calling pwmWrite() +again with the same pin and a different duty. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: pwmWrite + +Example +------- + +Sets the output to the LED proportional to the value read from the +potentiometer (adapted for Maple from the Arduino `analogWrite() +reference `_):: + + + int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to pin 13 (Maple) + int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer connected to analog pin 3 + int val = 0; // variable to store the read value + + void setup() { + pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the LED pin as output + + pinMode(analogPin, PWM); // sets the potentiometer pin as PWM + // output + } + + void loop() { + val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin + + analogWrite(ledPin, val / 16); // analogRead values go from 0 to 4095, + // analogWrite values from 0 to 65535 + } + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`Maple PWM tutorial ` diff --git a/docs/source/lang/random.rst b/docs/source/lang/random.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..51bee67 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/random.rst @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +.. _lang-random: + +random() +======== + +Description +----------- + +The random function generates pseudo-random numbers. + + + +Syntax +------ + +random(max) +random(min, max) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +min - lower bound of the random value, inclusive *(optional)* + + + +max - upper bound of the random value, exclusive + + + +Returns +------- + +a random number between min and max-1 (*long*) + + + +Note: +----- + +If it is important for a sequence of values generated by random() +to differ, on subsequent executions of a sketch, use randomSeed() +to initialize the random number generator with a fairly random +input, such as analogRead() on an unconnected pin. + + + +Conversely, it can occasionally be useful to use pseudo-random +sequences that repeat exactly. This can be accomplished by calling +randomSeed() with a fixed number, before starting the random +sequence. + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + long randNumber; + + void setup(){ + Serial.begin(9600); + + // if analog input pin 0 is unconnected, random analog + // noise will cause the call to randomSeed() to generate + // different seed numbers each time the sketch runs. + // randomSeed() will then shuffle the random function. + randomSeed(analogRead(0)); + } + + void loop() { + // print a random number from 0 to 299 + randNumber = random(300); + Serial.println(randNumber); + + // print a random number from 10 to 19 + randNumber = random(10, 20); + Serial.println(randNumber); + + delay(50); + } + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `randomSeed `_\ () + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/randomseed.rst b/docs/source/lang/randomseed.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3dcf4db --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/randomseed.rst @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +.. _lang-randomseed: + +randomSeed(seed) +================ + +Description +----------- + +randomSeed() initializes the pseudo-random number generator, +causing it to start at an arbitrary point in its random sequence. +This sequence, while very long, and random, is always the same. + + + +If it is important for a sequence of values generated by random() +to differ, on subsequent executions of a sketch, use randomSeed() +to initialize the random number generator with a fairly random +input, such as analogRead() on an unconnected pin. + + + +Conversely, it can occasionally be useful to use pseudo-random +sequences that repeat exactly. This can be accomplished by calling +randomSeed() with a fixed number, before starting the random +sequence. + + + +Parameters +---------- + +long, int - pass a number to generate the seed. + + + +Returns +------- + +no returns + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + long randNumber; + + void setup(){ + Serial.begin(9600); + randomSeed(analogRead(0)); + } + + void loop(){ + randNumber = random(300); + Serial.println(randNumber); + + delay(50); + } + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `random `_ + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/return.rst b/docs/source/lang/return.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e1b2924 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/return.rst @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-return: + +return +====== + +(Keyword) Terminates a function and return a value from a function to +the calling function, if the function has non-``void`` return type. + +Syntax: +------- + +:: + + // from within a "void" function: + return; + + // from within a non-"void" function: + return value; + +In the second case, ``value`` should have a type which is the same as +the return type of the function, or be convertible to it (like an +``int`` to a ``long``, etc.; see :ref:`this note +` for some references). + +Examples: +--------- + +A function to compare a sensor input to a threshold:: + + // converts analog readings between 0 and 400 to 0, and 400 up to 1. + int checkSensor() { + if (analogRead(0) > 400) { + return 1; + else { + return 0; + } + } + +An early ``return`` is also useful when testing a section of code +without having to "comment out" large sections of possibly buggy code, +like so:: + + void loop() { + + // brilliant code idea to test here + + return; + + // the rest of a dysfunctional sketch here + // this code will never be executed + } + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`comments ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/scope.rst b/docs/source/lang/scope.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e8bb13 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/scope.rst @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-scope: + +Variable Scope +============== + +Variables in the C++ programming language, which Maple uses (all of +your sketches are C++ programs in disguise), have a property called +*scope*. Simply put, a variable's scope is made up of all of the +lines where the variable can be used. + +Scope in C++ is a fairly complex topic, so we won't try to describe it +in full here. Instead, we present a simplified view, describing two +different kinds of scopes, *global* and *local*. For more detailed +information, consult a C++ reference. + +Global and Local Variables +-------------------------- + +A global variable is one that can be "seen" by every function in a +program. In the :ref:`Maple IDE `, any variable declared outside +of a function (like :ref:`setup() ` and :ref:`loop() +`) is a global variable. + +A local variable can only be "seen" inside of a particular function. +You can declare a variable to be local to a function by declaring it +inside of the :ref:`curly braces ` which enclose that +function. + +When programs start to get larger and more complex, local variables +are a useful way to ensure that a function has exclusive access to its +own variables. This prevents programming errors when one function +mistakenly modifies variables used by another function. + +It is also sometimes useful to declare and initialize a variable +inside a :ref:`for ` loop. This creates a variable that +can only be accessed from inside the loop body. + +Example +------- + +Here is an example sketch (which you can copy into the Maple IDE and +run on your Maple) that illustrates the use of global and local +variables, as well as declaring variables inside of a ``for`` loop. +Be sure to open a :ref:`serial monitor ` after you +:ref:`verify ` and :ref:`upload ` the sketch:: + + int globalVar; // any function will see this variable + + void setup() { + // since "globalVar" is declared outside of any function, + // every function can "see" and use it: + globalVar = 50; + + // the variables "i" and "d" declared inside the "loop" function + // can't be seen here. see what happens when you uncomment the + // following lines, and try to Verify (compile) the sketch: + // + // i = 16; + // SerialUSB.print("i = "); + // SerialUSB.println(i); + // d = 26.5; + // SerialUSB.print("d = "); + // SerialUSB.println(d); + } + + void loop() { + // since "i" and "d" are declared inside of the "loop" function, + // they can only be seen and used from inside of it: + int i; + double d; + + for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) { + // variable i can be used anywhere inside the "loop" function; + // variable j can only be accessed inside the for-loop brackets: + i = j * j; + SerialUSB.print("i = "); + SerialUSB.println(i); + } + + // globalVar can be accessed from anywhere. note how even + // though we set globalVar = 50 in the "setup" function, we can + // see that value here: + SerialUSB.print("globalVar = "); + SerialUSB.println(globalVar); + + // d can be accessed from anywhere inside the "loop" function: + d = 26.5; + SerialUSB.print("d = "); + SerialUSB.print(d); + SerialUSB.println(" (before separateFunction())"); + + separateFunction(); + + // notice how even though separateFunction() has a variable + // named "d", it didn't touch our (local) variable which has + // the same name: + SerialUSB.print("d = "); + SerialUSB.print(d); + SerialUSB.println(" (after separateFunction())"); + } + + void separateFunction() { + // variable "d" here has the same name as variable "d" inside of + // the "loop" function, but since they're both _local_ + // variables, they don't affect each other: + double d = 30.5; + SerialUSB.print("d = "); + SerialUSB.print(d); + SerialUSB.println(" (inside of separateFunction())"); + } + +See Also +-------- + +- `C++ programming Wikibook `_. +- Wikipedia article on `scope `_ + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/semicolon.rst b/docs/source/lang/semicolon.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4cf7b9f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/semicolon.rst @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-semicolon: + +Semicolon (;) +============= + +Used to end a line of code. Example:: + + int a = 13; + +Tip +--- + +Forgetting to end a line in a semicolon will result in a compiler +error. The error text may be obvious, and refer to a missing +semicolon, or it may not. If an impenetrable or seemingly illogical +compiler error comes up, one of the first things to check is a +missing semicolon, in the immediate vicinity, preceding the line at +which the compiler complained. + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/serial.rst b/docs/source/lang/serial.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..743f921 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/serial.rst @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +.. _lang-serial: + +Serial +====== + +Used for communication between the Arduino board and a computer or +other devices. All Arduino boards have at least one serial port +(also known as a UART or USART): **Serial**. It communicates on +digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX) as well as with the computer via +USB. Thus, if you use these functions, you cannot also use pins 0 +and 1 for digital input or output. + + + +You can use the Arduino environment's built-in serial monitor to +communicate with an Arduino board. Click the serial monitor button +in the toolbar and select the same baud rate used in the call to +begin(). + + + +The Arduino Mega has three additional serial ports: **Serial1** on +pins 19 (RX) and 18 (TX), **Serial2** on pins 17 (RX) and 16 (TX), +**Serial3** on pins 15 (RX) and 14 (TX). To use these pins to +communicate with your personal computer, you will need an +additional USB-to-serial adaptor, as they are not connected to the +Mega's USB-to-serial adaptor. To use them to communicate with an +external TTL serial device, connect the TX pin to your device's RX +pin, the RX to your device's TX pin, and the ground of your Mega to +your device's ground. (Don't connect these pins directly to an +RS232 serial port; they operate at +/- 12V and can damage your +Arduino board.) + + + +Functions +--------- + + +- `begin `_\ () +- `end `_\ () +- `available `_\ () +- `read `_\ () +- `flush `_\ () +- `print `_\ () + +.. _lang-serial-println: + +- `println `_\ () +- `write `_\ () + + + +Examples +-------- + + +- `ASCII Table `_ +- `Dimmer `_ +- `Graph `_ +- `Physical Pixel `_ +- `Virtual Color Mixer `_ +- `Serial Call Response `_ +- `Serial Call Response ASCII `_ + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/serialusb.rst b/docs/source/lang/serialusb.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..730fb07 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/serialusb.rst @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +.. _lang-serialusb: + +Serial over USB Communications +============================== + +.. _lang-serialusb-println: + +Stub. diff --git a/docs/source/lang/setup.rst b/docs/source/lang/setup.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6b142d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/setup.rst @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +.. _lang-setup: + +setup() +======= + +The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to +initialize variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The +setup function will only run once, after each powerup or reset of +the Arduino board. + + + +Example +~~~~~~~ + +:: + + + int buttonPin = 3; + + void setup() + { + Serial.begin(9600); + pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); + } + + void loop() + { + // ... + } + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/shiftout.rst b/docs/source/lang/shiftout.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e76cc01 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/shiftout.rst @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ +.. _lang-shiftout: + +shiftOut() +========== + +Description +----------- + +Shifts out a byte of data one bit at a time. Starts from either the +most (i.e. the leftmost) or least (rightmost) significant bit. Each +bit is written in turn to a data pin, after which a clock pin is +pulsed to indicate that the bit is available. + + + +This is a software implementation; Arduino (as of 0019) also +provides an `SPI library `_ +that uses the hardware implementation. + + + +Syntax +------ + +shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, bitOrder, value) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +dataPin: the pin on which to output each bit (*int*) + + + +clockPin: the pin to toggle once the **dataPin** has been set to +the correct value (*int*) + + + +bitOrder: which order to shift out the bits; either **MSBFIRST** or +**LSBFIRST**. +(Most Significant Bit First, or, Least Significant Bit First) + + + +value: the data to shift out. (*byte*) + + + +Returns +------- + +None + + + +Note +---- + +The **dataPin** and **clockPin** must already be configured as +outputs by a call to +`pinMode `_\ (). + + + +**shiftOut** is currently written to output 1 byte (8 bits) so it +requires a two step operation to output values larger than 255. + +:: + + // Do this for MSBFIRST serial + int data = 500; + // shift out highbyte + shiftOut(dataPin, clock, MSBFIRST, (data >> 8)); + // shift out lowbyte + shiftOut(data, clock, MSBFIRST, data); + + // Or do this for LSBFIRST serial + data = 500; + // shift out lowbyte + shiftOut(dataPin, clock, LSBFIRST, data); + // shift out highbyte + shiftOut(dataPin, clock, LSBFIRST, (data >> 8)); + + + +Example +------- + +*For accompanying circuit, see the `tutorial on controlling a 74HC595 shift register `_.* + + + +:: + + //**************************************************************// + // Name : shiftOutCode, Hello World // + // Author : Carlyn Maw,Tom Igoe // + // Date : 25 Oct, 2006 // + // Version : 1.0 // + // Notes : Code for using a 74HC595 Shift Register // + // : to count from 0 to 255 // + //**************************************************************** + + //Pin connected to ST_CP of 74HC595 + int latchPin = 8; + //Pin connected to SH_CP of 74HC595 + int clockPin = 12; + ////Pin connected to DS of 74HC595 + int dataPin = 11; + + void setup() { + //set pins to output because they are addressed in the main loop + pinMode(latchPin, OUTPUT); + pinMode(clockPin, OUTPUT); + pinMode(dataPin, OUTPUT); + } + + void loop() { + //count up routine + for (int j = 0; j < 256; j++) { + //ground latchPin and hold low for as long as you are transmitting + digitalWrite(latchPin, LOW); + shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, LSBFIRST, j); + //return the latch pin high to signal chip that it + //no longer needs to listen for information + digitalWrite(latchPin, HIGH); + delay(1000); + } + } + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/sin.rst b/docs/source/lang/sin.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..398b8f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/sin.rst @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +.. _lang-sin: + +sin() +===== + +Calculates the `sine `_ of an +angle. + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: sin + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple version of ``sin()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +Note that the Maple implementation comes from `newlib +`_\ , while Arduino's is that of +`avr-libc `_\ . + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`cos ` +- :ref:`tan ` +- :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`double ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/sizeof.rst b/docs/source/lang/sizeof.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..409a6d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/sizeof.rst @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-sizeof: + +sizeof() +======== + +The ``sizeof`` operator on the Maple returns the number of bytes +needed to store a value of a given type\ [#fcharsize]_. This can be +an ordinary numeric type, like ``int``. It can be something more +complicated, like a ``struct`` or ``union``. If the argument to +``sizeof`` is an array, it returns the total number of bytes occupied +by the array. + +The general syntax looks like this:: + + sizeof(type) + sizeof(var) + +Example +------- + +The ``sizeof`` operator is useful for dealing with arrays (such as +strings) where it is convenient to be able to change the size of the +array without breaking other parts of the program. + +This program prints out a text string one character at a time. Try +changing the text phrase:: + + char myStr[] = "this is a test"; + int i; + + void setup() { + Serial.begin(9600); + } + + void loop() { + for (i = 0; i < sizeof(myStr) - 1; i++) { + Serial.print(i, DEC); + Serial.print(" = "); + Serial.println(myStr[i], BYTE); + } + } + + +Note that ``sizeof`` returns the total number of bytes. So for larger +variable types such as ``int``, the :ref:`for loop ` +would look something like this:: + + for (i = 0; i < (sizeof(myInts)/sizeof(int)) - 1; i++) { + // do something with myInts[i] + } + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#fcharsize] Technically (and pedantically) speaking, ``sizeof`` + returns a multiple of the number of bits a ``char`` occupies in + memory. However, on the Maple (this goes for most C++ + implementations), a ``char`` occupies 8 bits = 1 byte. All the C++ + standard guarantees, however, is that a ``char`` occupies at + *least* 8 bits. + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt + diff --git a/docs/source/lang/sq.rst b/docs/source/lang/sq.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a14817f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/sq.rst @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-sq: + +sq(a) +===== + +Description +----------- + +(Macro) computes the square of a number. + +Parameters +---------- + +**a**: the number. + +Returns +------- + +**a** squared (**a** × **a**). + +Warning +------- + +Because of the way ``sq()`` is implemented, avoid using other +functions or causing side effects inside the parentheses, as it may +lead to incorrect results:: + + b = sq(a++); // avoid this - yields incorrect results + + b = sq(a); // use this instead - + a++; // keep other operations outside sq() + + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +Maple's implementation of ``sq()`` is compatible with Arduino. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/sqrt.rst b/docs/source/lang/sqrt.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..956a754 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/sqrt.rst @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +.. _lang-sqrt: + +sqrt() +====== + +Calculates the square root of a number. + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: sqrt + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple versino of ``sqrt()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`pow ` +- :ref:`sq ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/static.rst b/docs/source/lang/static.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4646db1 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/static.rst @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-static: + +Static +====== + +The ``static`` keyword can be used to create variables that are +visible to only one function. However, unlike local variables that get +created and destroyed every time a function is called, ``static`` +variables persist beyond the function call, preserving their data +between function calls. + +Variables declared as ``static`` will only be created and initialized +the first time a function is called. + +.. note:: This is only one use of the ``static`` keyword in C++. It + has some other important uses that are not documented here; consult + a reliable C++ reference for details. + +Example +------- + +One use case for ``static`` variables is implementing counters that +last longer than the functions which need them, but shouldn't be +shared to other functions. Here's an example:: + + void setup() { + SerialUSB.begin(); + } + + void loop() { + int reading; + if (timeToReadSensors()) { + reading = readSensors(); + } + // do something with reading + } + + int readSensors() { + static int numSensorReadings = 0; + numSensorReadings++; + if (numSensorReadings % 100 == 0) { + SerialUSB.print("just got to another 100 sensor readings"); + } + return analogRead(...); + } + +In this example, the static variable ``numSensorReadings`` is +initialized to zero the first time ``readSensors()`` is called, and +then incremented, so it starts out at one. Subsequent calls to +``readSensors()`` won't reset ``numSensorReadings`` to zero, because +it was declared ``static``. Thus, ``numSensorReadings`` is a count of +the number of times that ``readSensors()`` has been called. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/string.rst b/docs/source/lang/string.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..92c3f69 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/string.rst @@ -0,0 +1,131 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-string: + +Strings +======= + +Description +----------- + +Text strings can be represented in two ways. You can + +1. Use the :ref:`String ` data type, which is +part of the core as of version 0.0.9, or + +2. You can make a string out of an array of type :ref:`char +` and null-terminate it. + +This page describes the second method. + +Examples +-------- + +All of the following are valid declarations for strings:: + + char str1[15]; + char str2[6] = {'m', 'a', 'p', 'l', 'e'}; + char str3[6] = {'m', 'a', 'p', 'l', 'e', '\0'}; + char str4[ ] = "maple"; + char str5[6] = "maple"; + char str6[15] = "maple"; + +As you can see, there are several methods available for declaring and +initializing strings: + +- Declare an array of ``char`` without initializing it, as with ``str1``. + +- Declare an array of ``char`` (with one extra ``char``) and the + compiler will add the required null character, as with ``str2``. + +- Explicitly add the null character (``'\0'``), as with ``str3``. + +- Initialize with a string constant in quotation marks (``"..."``); + the compiler will size the array to fit the string constant and a + terminating null character (``str4``). + +- Initialize the array with an explicit size and string constant, + (``str5``). + +- Initialize the array, leaving extra space for a larger string + (``str6``). + +Null Termination +---------------- + +Generally, strings are terminated with a null character (`ASCII +`_ code 0). This allows functions +(like ``SerialUSB.print()``) to tell where the end of a string is. +Otherwise, they would continue reading subsequent bytes of memory that +aren't actually part of the string. + +This means that your string needs to have space for one more character +than the text you want it to contain. That is why ``str2`` and +``str5`` need to be six characters, even though "maple" is only five +-- the last position is automatically filled with a NULL +character. ``str4`` will be automatically sized to six characters, one +for the extra null. In the case of ``str3``, we've explicitly included +the null character (written ``'\0'``) ourselves. + +Note that it's possible to have a string without a final null +character (e.g. if you had specified the length of ``str2`` as five +instead of six). This will break most functions that use strings, so +you shouldn't do it intentionally. If you notice something behaving +strangely (operating on characters not in the string), however, this +could be the problem. + +Single quotes or double quotes? +------------------------------- + +Strings are always defined inside double quotes (``"Abc"``) and +characters are always defined inside single quotes (``'A'``). + +Wrapping long strings +--------------------- + +You can wrap long strings like this:: + + char myString[] = "This is the first line" + " this is the second line" + " etcetera"; + +Arrays of Strings +----------------- + +It is often convenient, when working with large amounts of text, +such as a project with an LCD display, to setup an array of +strings. Because strings themselves are arrays, this is in actually +an example of a two-dimensional array. + +In the code below, the asterisk after the datatype char ``char *`` +indicates that this is an array of "pointers". All array names are +actually pointers, so this is required to make an array of arrays. +Pointers are one of the more esoteric parts of C for beginners to +understand, but it isn't necessary to understand pointers in detail to +use them effectively here:: + + char* myStrings[] = {"This is string 1", "This is string 2", + "This is string 3", "This is string 4", + "This is string 5", "This is string 6"}; + + void setup() { + SerialUSB.begin(); + } + + void loop() { + for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++) { + SerialUSB.println(myStrings[i]); + delay(500); + } + } + + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`array ` +- :ref:`__attribute__ ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/stringclass.rst b/docs/source/lang/stringclass.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e53f08 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/stringclass.rst @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +.. _lang-stringclass: + +String Class +============ + +Stub. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/stringobject.rst b/docs/source/lang/stringobject.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7f287c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/stringobject.rst @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +.. _lang-stringobject: + +String +====== + +Description +----------- + +The String class, part of the core as of version 0019, allows you +to use and manipulate strings of text in more complex ways than +`character arrays `_ do. You +can concatenate Strings, append to them, search for and replace +substrings, and more. It takes more memory than a simple character +array, but it is also more useful. + + + +For reference, character arrays are referred to as strings with a +small s, and instances of the String class are referred to as +Strings with a capital S. Note that constant strings, specified in +"double quotes" are treated as char arrays, not instances of the +String class. + + + +Functions +--------- + + +- `String `_\ () +- `charAt `_\ () +- `compareTo `_\ () +- `concat `_\ () +- `endsWith `_\ () +- `equals `_\ () +- `equalsIgnoreCase `_\ () +- `getBytes `_\ () +- `indexOf `_\ () +- `lastIndexOf `_\ () +- `length `_\ () +- `replace `_\ () +- `setCharAt `_\ () +- `startsWith `_\ () +- `substring `_\ () +- `toCharArray `_\ () +- `toLowerCase `_\ () +- `toUpperCase `_\ () +- `trim `_\ () + + + +Operators +--------- + + +- `[] (element access) `_ +- `+ (concatenation) `_ +- `== (comparison) `_ + + + +Examples +-------- + + +- `StringConstructors `_ +- `StringAdditionOperator `_ +- `StringIndexOf `_ +- `StringAppendOperator `_ +- `StringLengthTrim `_ +- `StringCaseChanges `_ +- `StringReplace `_ +- `StringCharacters `_ +- `StringStartsWithEndsWith `_ +- `StringComparisonOperators `_ +- `StringSubstring `_ + + + +See Also +-------- + + +- `string `_: character + arrays +- `Variable Declaration `_ + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/switchcase.rst b/docs/source/lang/switchcase.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..46c47d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/switchcase.rst @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-switchcase: + +switch / case statements +======================== + +Like :ref:`if/else ` blocks, A ``switch`` statement +controls program flow by allowing you to specify different code that +should be executed under various cases. + +The general syntax looks like this:: + + switch (var) { + case val1: + // statements + break; + case val2: + // statements + break; + ... + default: + // statements + } + +Where ``var`` is a variable whose value to investigate, and the +``val1``, ``val2`` after each ``case`` are constant values that +``var`` might be. + + +Description +----------- + +A ``switch`` statement compares the value of a variable to the values +specified in ``case`` statements. When a ``case`` statement is found +whose value matches that of the variable, the code in that case +statement is run. + +Here's a more concrete example:: + + switch (var) { + case 1: + doThing1(); + break; + case 2: + doThing2(); + break; + } + afterTheSwitch(); + +In the above example, if ``var == 1``, then the code beginning on the +line after ``case 1`` gets executed. That is, if ``var`` is one, +``doThing1()`` gets called first, and then the ``break`` statement is +executed. + +The ``break`` keyword exits the ``switch`` statement, and is typically +used at the end of each ``case``. Since there is a ``break`` at the +end of ``case 1``, the ``switch`` statement exits, and the next line +to be run is the one which calls ``afterTheSwitch()``. + +Without a ``break``, the ``switch`` statement will continue executing +the following ``case`` expressions ("falling-through") until a +``break`` (or the end of the switch statement) is reached. Let's +pretend the ``switch`` looked like this instead:: + + switch (var) { + case 1: + doThing1(); + // no break statement anymore + case 2: + doThing2(); + break; + } + afterTheSwitch(); + +Now, if ``var`` is one, ``doThing1()`` gets executed like before. +However, without a ``break``, the code would continue to be executed +line-by-line, so ``doThing2()`` would be called next. At this point, +a ``break`` has been reached, so the program continues by calling +``afterTheSwitch()``. This is usually not what you want, which is why +each ``case`` usually has a ``break`` at the end. + +Writing "``default:``" instead of a ``case`` statement allows you to +specify what to do if none of the ``case`` statements matches. Having +a ``default`` is optional (you can leave it out), but if you have one, +it must appear after all of the ``case`` statements. Let's add a +``default`` to the ``switch`` we've been discussing:: + + switch (var) { + case 1: + doThing1(); + break; + case 2: + doThing2(); + break; + default: + doSomethingElse(); + } + afterTheSwitch(); + +If ``var`` is one, then ``doThing1()`` gets called. If ``var`` is +two, ``doThing2()`` gets called. If ``var`` is anything else, +``doSomethingElse()`` gets called. As stated above, a ``default`` is +optional. If you're missing one and none of the ``case`` statements +match, the ``switch`` does nothing at all, as if it weren't there. + +``switch`` statements are often used with an ``enum`` value as the +variable to compare. In this case, you can write down all of the +values the ``enum`` takes as ``case`` statements, and be sure you've +covered all the possibilities. + +See also: +--------- + +- :ref:`if...else ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/tan.rst b/docs/source/lang/tan.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4bbe0db --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/tan.rst @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +.. _lang-tan: + +tan() +===== + +Calculates the tangent of an angle. + +Library Documentation +--------------------- + +.. doxygenfunction:: tan + +Arduino Compatibility +--------------------- + +The Maple version of ``tan()`` is compatible with Arduino. + +Note that the Maple implementation comes from `newlib +`_\ , while Arduino's is that of +`avr-libc `_\ . + +See Also +-------- + + +- :ref:`sin ` +- :ref:`cos ` +- :ref:`float ` +- :ref:`double ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/tone.rst b/docs/source/lang/tone.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..96f0a7c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/tone.rst @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +.. _lang-tone: + +tone() +====== + +Description +----------- + +Generates a square wave of the specified frequency (and 50% duty +cycle) on a pin. A duration can be specified, otherwise the wave +continues until a call to +`noTone `_\ (). The pin can be +connected to a piezo buzzer or other speaker to play tones. + + + +Only one tone can be generated at a time. If a tone is already +playing on a different pin, the call to tone() will have no effect. +If the tone is playing on the same pin, the call will set its +frequency. + + + +Use of the tone() function will interfere with PWM output on pins 3 +and 11 (on boards other than the Mega). + + + +**NOTE:** if you want to play different pitches on multiple pins, +you need to call noTone() on one pin before calling tone() on the +next pin. + + + +Syntax +------ + +tone(pin, frequency) +tone(pin, frequency, duration) + + + +Parameters +---------- + +pin: the pin on which to generate the tone + + + +frequency: the frequency of the tone in hertz + + + +duration: the duration of the tone in milliseconds (optional) + + + +Returns +------- + +nothing + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `noTone `_\ () +- `analogWrite `_\ () +- `Tutorial:Tone `_ +- `Tutorial:Pitch follower `_ +- `Tutorial:Simple Keyboard `_ +- `Tutorial: multiple tones `_ + + +- `Tutorial: PWM `_ + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/types.rst b/docs/source/lang/types.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d095da1 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/types.rst @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +.. _lang-types: + +Built-in types +============== + +Stub. (explain all built-in integral and floating-point types, +including ``uint8`` style ones). diff --git a/docs/source/lang/unsignedchar.rst b/docs/source/lang/unsignedchar.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c49690d --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/unsignedchar.rst @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-unsignedchar: + +unsigned char +============= + +Description +----------- + +An unsigned version of the :ref:`char ` data type. An +``unsigned char`` occupies 1 byte of memory; it stores an integer from +0 to 255. + +Like an :ref:`unsigned int `, an ``unsigned char`` +won't store negative numbers; it is also subject to the same +:ref:`overflow issues ` as any integral data type. + +Example +------- + +:: + + unsigned char c = 240; + +See Also +-------- + + +- :ref:`byte ` +- :ref:`int ` +- :ref:`array ` +- :ref:`SerialUSB.println() ` +- :ref:`Serial.println() ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/unsignedint.rst b/docs/source/lang/unsignedint.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa5cc1b --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/unsignedint.rst @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-unsignedint: + +unsigned int +============ + +Description +----------- + +An ``unsigned int`` (unsigned integer) is the same as an :ref:`int +` in that it stores a 4 byte integer value. However, +Instead of storing both negative and positive numbers, an ``unsigned +int`` can only store nonnegative values, yielding a range of 0 to +4,294,967,295 (the positive value is 2^32 - 1). + +The difference between an ``unsigned int`` and a (signed) ``int`` lies +in the way the highest bit, sometimes referred to as the "sign" bit, +is interpreted. In the case of the Maple ``int`` type (which is +signed), if the high bit is a "1", the number is interpreted as a +negative number, using a technique known as `two's complement math +`_. The +bits in an an ``unsigned int`` are interpreted according to the usual +rules for converting `binary to decimal +`_. + +An ``unsigned int`` is subject to the same :ref:`overflow issues +` as a regular ``int``; the only difference is +that an ``unsigned int`` will "underflow" at 0, and "overflow" at +4,294,967,295. Here is some example code which illustrates this:: + + unsigned int x; + x = 0; + x--; // x now contains 4,294,967,295; rolled over "left to right" + x++; // x now contains 0; rolled over "right to left" + +Here is an example of declaring an ``unsigned int`` variable named +``ledPin``, then giving it value 13:: + + unsigned int ledPin = 13; + +The general syntax for declaring an ``unsigned int`` variable named +``var``, then giving it value ``val``, looks like:: + + unsigned int var = val; + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`int ` +- :ref:`char ` +- :ref:`unsigned char ` +- :ref:`long ` +- :ref:`unsigned long ` +- :ref:`Integer Constants ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/unsignedlong.rst b/docs/source/lang/unsignedlong.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ca49f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/unsignedlong.rst @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-unsignedlong: + +unsigned long +============= + +Description +----------- + +An unsigned version of the :ref:`long ` data type. An +``unsigned long`` occupies 8 bytes of memory; it stores an integer +from 0 to 2^64-1, which is approximately 1.8×10^19 (18 quintillion, or +18 billion billion). + +Like an :ref:`unsigned int `, an ``unsigned long`` +won't store negative numbers; it is also subject to the same +:ref:`overflow issues ` as any integral data type. + +Here is an example of declaring an ``unsigned long`` variable named +``c``, then giving it value 299,792,458,000,000,000 (see :ref:`integer +constants ` for an explanation of the "L" at the +end of the number):: + + // Speed of light in nanometers per second (approximate). + unsigned long c = 299792458000000000L; + +The general syntax for declaring an ``unsigned long`` variable named +``var``, then giving it value ``val``, looks like:: + + unsigned long var = val; + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`long ` +- :ref:`int ` +- :ref:`unsigned ` +- :ref:`char ` +- :ref:`unsigned char ` +- :ref:`Integer Constants ` +- :ref:`Variables ` + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/variables.rst b/docs/source/lang/variables.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..05a4f96 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/variables.rst @@ -0,0 +1,170 @@ +.. highlight:: cpp + +.. _lang-variables: + +Variables +========= + +A variable is a way of naming and storing a value for later use by +the program, such as data from a sensor or an intermediate value +used in a calculation. + +.. contents:: Contents + :local: + +.. _lang-variables-declaring: + +Declaring Variables +------------------- + +Before they are used, all variables have to be *declared*. Declaring a +variable means defining its type, giving it a name, and (optionally) +giving it an initial value (this is often referred to as +*initializing* the variable). Variables do not have to be initialized +(given a value) when they are declared, but it is good style to give +them an initial value whenever possible. + +Here is an example of declaring a variable named ``inputVariable1`` +with type :ref:`int ` (the ``int`` type is used to store +integers, like -2, -1, 0, 1, etc.):: + + int inputVariable1; + +In the above declaration, we did not give the variable an initial +value. Here is another example, where we declare an ``int`` variable +named ``inputVariable2``, with an initial value of ``0``:: + + int inputVariable2 = 0; + +The Maple environment comes ready to use with many useful types of +variables. See the :ref:`built-in types ` page for more +information. + +Here are a few examples of declaring variables of different types:: + + int lightSensVal; + char currentLetter; + unsigned long speedOfLight = 186000UL; + char errorMessage = {"choose another option"}; // see string + +Naming Variables +---------------- + +The rules for naming a variable are simple. Names for variables can +contain letters, numbers, and underscores (the underscore is the +:kbd:`_` character), and cannot begin with a number. So +``temperature_reading``, ``tempReading``, ``tempReading1``, and +``tempReading2`` are all valid variable names, but ``4_temp_readings`` +is not, because it begins with a number. + +You cannot choose a name for a variable that is one of the C++ +:ref:`keywords `. + +Variable names are case-sensitive, so "tempreading" and "tempReading" +are different variables. However, it is very bad style to write code +that chooses variables which are the same up to case. + +You should give your variables descriptive names, so as to make your +code more readable. Variable names like ``tiltSensor`` or +``pushButton`` help you (and anyone else reading your code) understand +what the variable represents. Variable names like ``var`` or +``value``, on the other hand, do little to make your code readable. + +.. _lang-variables-scope: + +Variable Scope +-------------- + +An important choice that programmers face is where (in the program +text) to declare variables. The specific place that variables are +declared influences how various functions in a program will "see" the +variable. This is called variable *scope*. See the :ref:`scope +reference ` for more information. + +.. _lang-variables-initializing: + +Initializing Variables +---------------------- + +Variables may be *initialized* (assigned a starting value) when they +are declared or not. It is always good programming practice however to +double check that a variable has valid data in it before it is used. +Using a variable before you give it a value is a common source of +bugs. + +.. _lang-variables-rollover: + +Variable Rollover +----------------- + +Every (numeric) type has a valid *range*. The range of a type is the +smallest and largest value that a variable of that type can store. +For example, the :ref:`int ` type has a range of +-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 [#frange]_. + +When variables are made to exceed their range's maximum value, they +"roll over" back to their minimum value. Note that this happens in +both directions. It's like in the game *Pac-Man* -- when Pac-Man goes +past the right edge of the screen, he reappears on the left, and when +he goes past the left side of the screen, he reappears on the right:: + + int x; + x = -2,147,483,648; + x = x - 1; // x now contains -2,147,483,647; rolled over "left to right" + + x = 2,147,483,647; + x = x + 1; // x now contains -2,147,483,648; rolled over "right to left" + +Each numeric type's reference page includes its range. See the +:ref:`built-in types ` reference for links to each type's +reference page. + +Using Variables +--------------- + +Once variables have been declared, they are given values using the +:ref:`assignment operator `, which is a single equals +sign, ``=``. The assignment operator tells the program to store the +value on the right side of the equals sign into the variable on the +left side:: + + inputVariable1 = 7; // sets variable named inputVariable1 to 7 + inputVariable2 = analogRead(2); // sets variable named inputVariable2 to + // the (digitized) input voltage read from + // analog pin #2 + +Once a variable has been set (assigned a value), you can test its +value to see if it meets certain conditions, or you can use its value +directly. For instance, the following code tests whether the +inputVariable2 is less than 100, then sets a delay based on +inputVariable2 (which, at that point, is at least 100):: + + if (inputVariable2 < 100) { + inputVariable2 = 100; + } + + delay(inputVariable2); + +See Also +-------- + +- :ref:`lang-scope` +- :ref:`lang-types` + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#frange] This range might seem a little weird at first. The + reasons for this range of values have to do with the fact that an + ``int`` occupies 32 bits of memory, and the facts :: + + 2^31 = -2,147,483,648 + 2^31 - 1 = 2,147,483,647 + + + Why 2^31 instead of 2^32? Well, that has to do with `how ints are + (usually) stored + `_ on computers. + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt + diff --git a/docs/source/lang/void.rst b/docs/source/lang/void.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc7a3dc --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/void.rst @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +.. _lang-void: + +void +==== + +The void keyword is used only in function declarations. It +indicates that the function is expected to return no information to +the function from which it was called. + + + +Example: +-------- + +:: + + // actions are performed in the functions "setup" and "loop" + // but no information is reported to the larger program + + void setup() + { + // ... + } + + void loop() + { + // ... + } + + + + +See also +-------- + +`function declaration `_ + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/volatile.rst b/docs/source/lang/volatile.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0ef671 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/volatile.rst @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +.. _lang-volatile: + +volatile keyword +================ + +volatile is a keyword known as a variable *qualifier*, it is +usually used before the datatype of a variable, to modify the way +in which the compiler and subsequent program treats the variable. + + + +Declaring a variable volatile is a directive to the compiler. The +compiler is software which translates your C/C++ code into the +machine code, which are the real instructions for the Atmega chip +in the Arduino. + + + +Specifically, it directs the compiler to load the variable from RAM +and not from a storage register, which is a temporary memory +location where program variables are stored and manipulated. Under +certain conditions, the value for a variable stored in registers +can be inaccurate. + + + +A variable should be declared volatile whenever its value can be +changed by something beyond the control of the code section in +which it appears, such as a concurrently executing thread. In the +Arduino, the only place that this is likely to occur is in sections +of code associated with interrupts, called an interrupt service +routine. + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + // toggles LED when interrupt pin changes state + + int pin = 13; + volatile int state = LOW; + + void setup() + { + pinMode(pin, OUTPUT); + attachInterrupt(0, blink, CHANGE); + } + + void loop() + { + digitalWrite(pin, state); + } + + void blink() + { + state = !state; + } + + + +See also +-------- + + +- `AttachInterrupt `_ + + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/lang/while.rst b/docs/source/lang/while.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..be1ea14 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/lang/while.rst @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +.. _lang-while: + +while Loops +=========== + +Description +----------- + +**while** loops will loop continuously, and infinitely, until the +expression inside the parenthesis, () becomes false. Something must +change the tested variable, or the **while** loop will never exit. +This could be in your code, such as an incremented variable, or an +external condition, such as testing a sensor. + + + +Syntax +------ + +:: + + while(expression){ + // statement(s) + } + + + +Parameters +---------- + +expression - a (boolean) C statement that evaluates to true or +false + + + +Example +------- + +:: + + var = 0; + while(var < 200){ + // do something repetitive 200 times + var++; + } + + + +.. include:: cc-attribution.txt diff --git a/docs/source/language-index.rst b/docs/source/language-index.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..90b3d79 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/source/language-index.rst @@ -0,0 +1,131 @@ +.. _language-index: + +Language Reference Index +======================== + +This is the index of the :ref:`language reference ` +documentation. + +Not converted Arduino docs: + +.. toctree:: + :maxdepth: 1 + + lang/pwmwrite + lang/types + lang/serialusb + +Finished: + +.. toctree:: + :maxdepth: 1 + + lang/abs + lang/analogread + lang/pinmode + lang/arithmetic + lang/array + lang/assignment + lang/attachinterrupt + lang/bit + lang/bitclear + lang/bitread + lang/bitset + lang/bitshift + lang/analogwrite + lang/bitwisemath + lang/bitwisecompound + lang/bitwrite + lang/boolean + lang/booleanvariables + lang/braces + lang/break + lang/byte + lang/bytecast + lang/char + lang/charcast + lang/comments + lang/const + lang/constrain + lang/continue + lang/cos + lang/define + lang/delay + lang/delaymicroseconds + lang/detachinterrupt + lang/digitalread + lang/double + lang/doublecast + lang/dowhile + lang/else + lang/float + lang/floatcast + lang/for + lang/goto + lang/highbyte + lang/if + lang/comparison + lang/include + lang/increment + lang/arithmeticcompound + lang/int + lang/intcast + lang/long + lang/longcast + lang/loop + lang/max + lang/min + lang/modulo + lang/pointer + lang/pow + lang/return + lang/scope + lang/semicolon + lang/sin + lang/sizeof + lang/sqrt + lang/sq + lang/static + lang/string + lang/switchcase + lang/tan + lang/unsignedchar + lang/unsignedint + lang/unsignedlong + lang/variables + +Unfinished; straightforward to convert: + +.. toctree:: + :maxdepth: 1 + + lang/void + lang/volatile + lang/while + lang/keywords + lang/enum + +Unfinished, requires libmaple/Arduino knowledge: + +.. toctree:: + :maxdepth: 1 + + lang/constants + lang/digitalwrite + lang/notone + lang/serial + lang/interrupts + lang/analogwrite + lang/nointerrupts + lang/pulsein + lang/stringobject + lang/tone + lang/random + lang/randomseed + lang/setup + lang/map + lang/shiftout + lang/micros + lang/millis + lang/lowbyte + lang/stringclass diff --git a/docs/source/language.rst b/docs/source/language.rst index bbdbf90..0a79fb0 100644 --- a/docs/source/language.rst +++ b/docs/source/language.rst @@ -42,174 +42,174 @@ Unique Maple Additions #define DEBUG_LEVEL DEBUG_NONE - before including either wirish or libmaple. In this case, all + before including either wirish.h or libmaple.h. In this case, all assertions will pass without any lost clock cycles. Note that this will **not work in the IDE**; even with this definition, assertions will still be enabled. -.. _language-arduino-docs: +.. _language-lang-docs: Maple Language Reference ------------------------ -+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ -| Structure | Variables | Functions | -| | | | -+=================================================+==============================================+===================================================+ -|* :ref:`setup() ` |**Constants** |**Digital I/O** | -| | | | -|* :ref:`loop() ` |* :ref:`HIGH ` | |* :ref:`pinMode() ` | -| | :ref:`LOW ` | | -| | |* :ref:`digitalWrite() ` | -|**Control Structures** |* :ref:`INPUT ` | | | -| | :ref:`OUTPUT ` |* :ref:`digitalRead() ` | -|* :ref:`if ` | | | -| |* :ref:`true ` | | | -|* :ref:`if...else ` | :ref:`false ` |**Analog I/O** | -| | | | -|* :ref:`for ` |* :ref:`integer constants |* :ref:`analogRead() ` | -| | ` | | -|* :ref:`switch/case ` | |* :ref:`pwmWrite() ` | -| |* :ref:`floating point constants | (:ref:`analogWrite() ` is | -|* :ref:`while ` | ` | also available, though its use is discouraged) | -| | | | -|* :ref:`do...while ` | | | -| |**Data Types** |**Advanced I/O** | -|* :ref:`break ` | | | -| | The size of each datatype, in bytes, is |* tone(): TODO | -|* :ref:`continue ` | given in parentheses where appropriate. | | -| | |* noTone(): TODO | -|* :ref:`return ` | *Note*: The ``word`` type is (deliberately) | | -| | :ref:`not supported `. |* shiftOut(): TODO | -|* :ref:`goto ` | | | -| |* :ref:`void ` |* pulseIn(): TODO | -| | | | -|**Further syntax** |* :ref:`boolean ` (1 byte) | | -| | |**Time** | -|* :ref:`; ` (semicolon) |* :ref:`char ` (1 byte) | | -| | |* :ref:`millis() ` | -|* :ref:`{} ` (curly braces) |* :ref:`unsigned char | | -| | ` (1 byte) |* :ref:`micros() ` | -|* :ref:`// ` | | | -| (single line comment) |* :ref:`byte ` (1 byte) |* :ref:`delay() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`/\* \*/ |* :ref:`int ` (4 bytes) |* :ref:`delayMicroseconds() | -| ` | | ` | -| (multi-line comment) |* :ref:`unsigned int ` | | -| | (4 bytes) | | -|* :ref:`#define ` | |**Math** | -| |* :ref:`long ` (8 bytes) | | -|* :ref:`#include ` | |* :ref:`min() ` | -| |* :ref:`unsigned long ` | | -| | (8 bytes) |* :ref:`max() ` | -|**Arithmetic Operators** | | | -| |* :ref:`float ` (4 bytes) |* :ref:`abs() ` | -|* :ref:`= ` | | | -| (assignment operator) |* :ref:`double ` (8 bytes) |* :ref:`constrain() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`+ ` (addition) |* :ref:`string ` |* :ref:`map() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`- ` |* :ref:`array ` |* :ref:`pow() ` | -| (subtraction) | | | -| |* Also provided: ``int8``, ``int16``, |* :ref:`sqrt() ` | -|* :ref:`* ` | ``int32``, ``int64``, and their unsigned | | -| (multiplication) | counterparts ``uint8``, ``uint16``, | | -| | ``uint32``, ``uint64``. |**Trigonometry** | -|* :ref:`/ ` (division) | | | -| | |* :ref:`sin() ` | -|* :ref:`% ` (modulo) |**Conversion** | | -| | |* :ref:`cos() ` | -| |* :ref:`char() ` | | -|**Comparison Operators** | |* :ref:`tan() ` | -| |* :ref:`byte() ` | | -|* :ref:`== ` (equal to) | | | -| |* :ref:`int() ` |**Random Numbers** | -|* :ref:`\!= ` | | | -| (not equal to) |* :ref:`long() ` |* :ref:`randomSeed() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`< ` (less than) |* :ref:`float() ` |* :ref:`random() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`> ` |* :ref:`double() ` | | -| (greater than) | |**Bits and Bytes** | -| | | | -|* :ref:`<= ` |**Variable Scope & Qualifiers** |* :ref:`lowByte() ` | -| (less than or equal to) | | | -| |* :ref:`variables `, |* :ref:`highByte() ` is | -|* :ref:`>= ` | :ref:`scope ` | provided, though its use is discouraged. | -| (greater than or equal to) | | | -| |* :ref:`static ` |* :ref:`bitRead() ` | -| | | | -|**Boolean Operators** |* :ref:`volatile ` |* :ref:`bitWrite() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`&& ` (and) |* :ref:`const ` |* :ref:`bitSet() ` | -| | | | -|* :ref:`|| ` (or) | |* :ref:`bitClear() ` | -| |**Utilities** | | -|* :ref:`\! ` (not) | |* :ref:`bit() ` | -| |* :ref:`sizeof() ` | | -| | (``sizeof`` operator) | | -|**Pointer Access Operators** | |**External Interrupts** | -| | | | -|* :ref:`* dereference operator | |* :ref:`Reference Page ` | -| ` | | | -| | |* :ref:`attachInterrupt() | -|* :ref:`& reference operator | | ` | -| ` | | | -| | |* :ref:`detachInterrupt() | -| | | ` | -|**Bitwise Operators** | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`& ` | |**Interrupts** | -| (bitwise and) | | | -| | |* interrupts(): TODO | -|* :ref:`| ` | | | -| (bitwise or) | |* noInterrupts(): TODO | -| | | | -|* :ref:`^ ` | | | -| (bitwise xor) | |**Communication** | -| | | | -|* :ref:`~ ` | |* :ref:`SerialUSB ` | -| (bitwise not) | | | -| | |* :ref:`Serial ` | -|* :ref:`\<\< ` | | | -| (shift left) | |**Looking for something else?** | -| | | | -|* :ref:`>> ` | | See the :ref:`libraries` page for interfacing with| -| (shift right) | | particular types of hardware. Try the list of | -| | | `community-contributed code` . Maple links | -| | | against `newlib` and allows the use of any of its | -|**Compound Operators** | | functions; see its documentation for more details.| -| | | | -|* :ref:`++ ` | | | -| (increment) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`- - ` | | | -| (decrement) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`+= ` | | | -| (compound add) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`-= | | | -| ` (compound | | | -| subtract) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`*= | | | -| ` (compound | | | -| multiply) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`/= | | | -| ` (compound | | | -| divide) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`&= | | | -| ` (compound | | | -| bitwise and) | | | -| | | | -|* :ref:`|= | | | -| ` (compound | | | -| bitwise or) | | | -| | | | -+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ ++--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ +| Structure | Variables | Functions | +| | | | ++============================================+==============================================+===================================================+ +|* :ref:`setup() ` |**Constants** |**Digital I/O** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`loop() ` |* :ref:`HIGH ` | |* :ref:`pinMode() ` | +| | :ref:`LOW ` | | +| | |* :ref:`digitalWrite() ` | +|**Control Structures** |* :ref:`INPUT ` | | | +| | :ref:`OUTPUT ` |* :ref:`digitalRead() ` | +|* :ref:`if ` | | | +| |* :ref:`true ` | | | +|* :ref:`if...else ` | :ref:`false ` |**Analog I/O** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`for ` |* :ref:`integer constants |* :ref:`analogRead() ` | +| | ` | | +|* :ref:`switch/case ` | |* :ref:`pwmWrite() ` | +| |* :ref:`floating point constants | (:ref:`analogWrite() ` is | +|* :ref:`while ` | ` | also available, though its use is discouraged) | +| | | | +|* :ref:`do...while ` | | | +| |**Data Types** |**Advanced I/O** | +|* :ref:`break ` | | | +| | The size of each datatype, in bytes, is |* tone(): TODO | +|* :ref:`continue ` | given in parentheses where appropriate. | | +| | |* noTone(): TODO | +|* :ref:`return ` | *Note*: The ``word`` type is (deliberately) | | +| | :ref:`not supported `. |* shiftOut(): TODO | +|* :ref:`goto ` | | | +| |* :ref:`void ` |* pulseIn(): TODO | +| | | | +|**Further syntax** |* :ref:`boolean ` (1 byte) | | +| | |**Time** | +|* :ref:`; (semicolon) ` |* :ref:`char ` (1 byte) | | +| | |* :ref:`millis() ` | +|* :ref:`{} (curly braces) ` |* :ref:`unsigned char | | +| | ` (1 byte) |* :ref:`micros() ` | +|* :ref:`// (single-line comment) | | | +| ` |* :ref:`byte ` (1 byte) |* :ref:`delay() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`/\* \*/ (multi-line comment) |* :ref:`int ` (4 bytes) |* :ref:`delayMicroseconds() | +| ` | | ` | +| |* :ref:`unsigned int ` | | +|* :ref:`#define ` | (4 bytes) | | +| | |**Math** | +|* :ref:`#include ` |* :ref:`long ` (8 bytes) | | +| | |* :ref:`min() ` | +| |* :ref:`unsigned long ` | | +|**Arithmetic Operators** | (8 bytes) |* :ref:`max() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`= ` |* :ref:`float ` (4 bytes) |* :ref:`abs() ` | +| (assignment operator) | | | +| |* :ref:`double ` (8 bytes) |* :ref:`constrain() ` | +|* :ref:`+ ` (addition) | | | +| |* :ref:`string ` |* :ref:`map() ` | +|* :ref:`- ` | | | +| (subtraction) |* :ref:`array ` |* :ref:`pow() ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`* ` |* See also: :ref:`built-in types reference |* :ref:`sqrt() ` | +| (multiplication) | `. | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`/ ` (division) | |**Trigonometry** | +| |**Conversion** | | +|* :ref:`% ` (modulo) | |* :ref:`sin() ` | +| |* :ref:`char() ` | | +| | |* :ref:`cos() ` | +|**Comparison Operators** |* :ref:`byte() ` | | +| | |* :ref:`tan() ` | +|* :ref:`== ` (equal to) |* :ref:`int() ` | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`\!= ` |* :ref:`long() ` |**Random Numbers** | +| (not equal to) | | | +| |* :ref:`float() ` |* :ref:`randomSeed() ` | +|* :ref:`< ` (less than) | | | +| |* :ref:`double() ` |* :ref:`random() ` | +|* :ref:`> ` | | | +| (greater than) | | | +| |**Variable Scope & Qualifiers** |**Bits and Bytes** | +|* :ref:`<= ` | | | +| (less than or equal to) |* :ref:`variables `, |* :ref:`lowByte() ` | +| | :ref:`scope ` | | +|* :ref:`>= ` | |* :ref:`highByte() ` is | +| (greater than or equal to) |* :ref:`static ` | provided, though its use is discouraged. | +| | | | +| |* :ref:`volatile ` |* :ref:`bitRead() ` | +|**Boolean Operators** | | | +| |* :ref:`const ` |* :ref:`bitWrite() ` | +|* :ref:`&& ` (and) | | | +| | |* :ref:`bitSet() ` | +|* :ref:`|| ` (or) |**Utilities** | | +| | |* :ref:`bitClear() ` | +|* :ref:`\! ` (not) |* :ref:`sizeof() ` | | +| | (``sizeof`` operator) |* :ref:`bit() ` | +| | | | +|**Pointer Operators** | | | +| | |**External Interrupts** | +|* :ref:`* dereference operator | | | +| ` | |* :ref:`Reference Page ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`& reference operator | |* :ref:`attachInterrupt() | +| ` | | ` | +| | | | +| | |* :ref:`detachInterrupt() | +|**Bitwise Operators** | | ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`& ` | | | +| (bitwise and) | |**Interrupts** | +| | | | +|* :ref:`| ` | |* interrupts(): TODO | +| (bitwise or) | | | +| | |* noInterrupts(): TODO | +|* :ref:`^ ` | | | +| (bitwise xor) | | | +| | |**Communication** | +|* :ref:`~ ` | | | +| (bitwise not) | |* :ref:`SerialUSB ` | +| | | | +|* :ref:`\<\< ` | |* :ref:`Serial ` | +| (shift left) | | | +| | |**Looking for something else?** | +|* :ref:`>> ` | | | +| (shift right) | | See the :ref:`libraries` page for interfacing with| +| | | particular types of hardware. Maple links | +| | | against `newlib `_ | +|**Compound Operators** | | and allows the use of any of its functions; see | +| | | its documentation for more details. | +|* :ref:`++ ` | | | +| (increment) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`- - ` | | | +| (decrement) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`+= ` | | | +| (compound add) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`-= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| subtract) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`*= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| multiply) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`/= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| divide) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`&= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| bitwise and) | | | +| | | | +|* :ref:`|= | | | +| ` (compound | | | +| bitwise or) | | | +| | | | +| | | | ++--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ .. _language-missing-features: diff --git a/docs/source/wirish.rst b/docs/source/wirish.rst deleted file mode 100644 index e8e608e..0000000 --- a/docs/source/wirish.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10 +0,0 @@ - -[temporary] Wirish Functions -============================ - -.. toctree:: - :maxdepth: 2 - - wirish/pwmwrite - wirish/types - wirish/serialusb diff --git a/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst b/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 7667a72..0000000 --- a/docs/source/wirish/pwmwrite.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ -.. highlight:: cpp - -.. _wirish-pwmwrite: - -pwmWrite() -========== - -Writes a :ref:`PWM wave ` to a pin. You can use this to make an -LED get brighter or dimmer, control a servomotor, etc. After a call to -pwmWrite(), the pin will output a steady square wave with the given -duty cycle. You can change the duty cycle later by calling pwmWrite() -again with the same pin and a different duty. - -.. contents:: Contents - :local: - -Library Documentation ---------------------- - -.. doxygenfunction:: pwmWrite - -Example -------- - -Sets the output to the LED proportional to the value read from the -potentiometer (adapted for Maple from the Arduino `analogWrite() -reference `_):: - - - int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to pin 13 (Maple) - int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer connected to analog pin 3 - int val = 0; // variable to store the read value - - void setup() { - pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the LED pin as output - - pinMode(analogPin, PWM); // sets the potentiometer pin as PWM - // output - } - - void loop() { - val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin - - analogWrite(ledPin, val / 16); // analogRead values go from 0 to 4095, - // analogWrite values from 0 to 65535 - } - -See Also --------- - -- :ref:`Maple PWM tutorial ` diff --git a/docs/source/wirish/serialusb.rst b/docs/source/wirish/serialusb.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d0eac98..0000000 --- a/docs/source/wirish/serialusb.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -.. _wirish-serialusb: - -Serial over USB Communications -============================== - -Stub. diff --git a/docs/source/wirish/types.rst b/docs/source/wirish/types.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 0b78d01..0000000 --- a/docs/source/wirish/types.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -.. _wirish-types: - -Standard types -============== - -Stub. (uint8, uint64, etc.) -- cgit v1.2.3