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+.. _lang-constants:
+
+Constants
+=========
+
+Constants are like predefined variables, whose values can't
+change. They are used to make the programs easier to read and modify.
+This page describes the most commonly used constants.
+
+.. contents:: Contents
+   :local:
+
+.. _lang-constants-bool:
+
+Boolean Constants
+-----------------
+
+There are two constants used to represent truth and falsity: ``true``,
+and ``false``.
+
+.. _lang-constants-false:
+
+false
+^^^^^
+
+``false`` is the false ``bool`` value. An integer which is 0 evaluates
+to ``false`` as a boolean.
+
+.. _lang-constants-true:
+
+true
+^^^^
+
+``true`` is the true ``bool`` value.  As an integer, ``true`` is often
+said to be 1.  This is correct in the sense that ``true`` evaluates to
+1 as an integer.  However, any integer which is *non-zero* is ``true``
+as a :ref:`bool <lang-booleanvariables>`. So -1, 2 and -200 are all
+"true", in the sense that these numbers are treated the same as
+``true`` in a boolean context.
+
+Note that the ``true`` and ``false`` constants are typed in lowercase;
+unlike e.g. ``HIGH``, ``LOW``, ``INPUT``, and ``OUTPUT`` (which are
+described below).
+
+
+Pin Levels: HIGH and LOW
+------------------------
+
+When reading or writing to a digital pin there are only two possible
+values a pin can be set to: ``HIGH`` and ``LOW``.
+
+.. _lang-constants-high:
+
+HIGH
+^^^^
+
+The meaning of ``HIGH`` (in reference to a pin) is somewhat different
+depending on whether the pin is set to ``INPUT`` or ``OUTPUT``. When a
+pin is configured as an ``INPUT`` (using :ref:`pinMode()
+<lang-pinmode>`), and read with :ref:`digitalRead()
+<lang-digitalread>`, the microcontroller will report ``HIGH`` if a
+voltage of 3 volts or more is present at the pin.
+
+.. TODO? Following seems false; check it out sometime, leave out for now:
+
+.. A pin may also be configured as an ``INPUT`` with ``pinMode()``, and
+.. subsequently made ``HIGH`` with :ref:`digitalWrite()
+.. <lang-digitalwrite>`, this will set the internal pullup resistors,
+.. which will *steer* the input pin to a HIGH reading unless it is pulled
+.. LOW by external circuitry.
+
+When a pin is configured to ``OUTPUT`` with pinMode, and set to
+``HIGH`` with :ref:`digitalWrite() <lang-digitalwrite>`, the pin is at
+3.3 volts. In this state it can *source* current, e.g. light an LED
+that is connected through a series resistor to ground, or to another
+pin configured as an output and set to ``LOW``.
+
+.. _lang-constants-low:
+
+LOW
+^^^
+
+The meaning of ``LOW`` also has a different meaning depending on
+whether a pin is set to ``INPUT`` or ``OUTPUT``. When a pin is
+configured as an ``INPUT`` with :ref:`pinMode() <lang-pinmode>`, and
+read with :ref:`digitalRead() <lang-digitalread>`, the microcontroller
+will report ``LOW`` if a voltage of 2 volts or less is present at the
+pin.
+
+When a pin is configured to ``OUTPUT`` with ``pinMode()``, and set to
+``LOW`` with :ref:`digitalWrite() <lang-digitalwrite>`, the
+microcontroller will attempt to keep that pin's voltage at 0V. In this
+state it can *sink* current, e.g. light an LED that is connected
+through a series resistor to +3.3V, or to another pin configured as an
+output, and set to ``HIGH``.
+
+Pin Modes
+---------
+
+Digital pins can be used in a variety of modes.  The basic modes,
+``INPUT`` and ``OUTPUT``, have been introduced above.  Changing a pin
+from ``INPUT`` TO ``OUTPUT`` with :ref:`pinMode() <lang-pinmode>`
+drastically changes the electrical behavior of the pin.
+
+This section describes the basic digital pin modes (``INPUT`` and
+``OUTPUT``) only.  For a detailed description of all possible pin
+modes, see the :ref:`pinMode() <lang-pinmode>` reference page.
+
+.. _lang-constants-input:
+
+INPUT
+^^^^^
+
+Maple (STM32) pins configured as ``INPUT`` are said to be in a
+high-impedance state. One way of explaining this is that pins
+configured as ``INPUT`` make extremely small demands on the circuit
+that they are sampling. This makes them useful for reading a sensor,
+but not powering an LED.
+
+.. _lang-constants-output:
+
+OUTPUT
+^^^^^^
+
+Pins configured as ``OUTPUT`` with :ref:`pinMode() <lang-pinmode>` are
+said to be in a low-impedance state. This means that they can provide
+a substantial amount of current to other circuits. STM32 pins can
+source (provide positive current) or sink (provide negative current)
+up to 50 mA (milliamps) of current to other devices/circuits. This
+makes them useful for powering LEDs, but useless for reading sensors.
+
+Pins configured as outputs can also be damaged or destroyed if short
+circuited to either ground or 3.3V power rails. The amount of current
+provided by an STM32 pin is also not enough to power most relays or
+motors, and some interface circuitry will be required.
+
+.. _lang-constants-integers:
+
+Integer Constants
+-----------------
+
+Integer constants (or more properly speaking, integer *literals*) are
+numbers used directly in a sketch, like ``123``. By default, an
+integer literal is treated as a (signed) :ref:`int <lang-int>`, but
+you can change this with the U and L modifiers (see :ref:`below
+<lang-constants-integers-u-l>`).  You can specify negative numbers by
+putting a minus sign in front, like ``-123``.
+
+Normally, integer literals are treated as base 10 (decimal) integers,
+but special notation (formatters) may be used to enter numbers in
+other bases.  These are summarized in the following table:
+
+.. list-table::
+   :header-rows: 1
+
+   * - Base
+     - Example
+     - Formatter
+     - Comment
+
+   * - 10 (decimal)
+     - ``123``
+     - None
+     -
+
+   * - 2 (binary)
+     - ``0b1111011``
+     - Leading "0b"
+     - GCC extension; not standard C++
+
+   * - 8 (octal)
+     - ``0173``
+     - Leading "0"
+     - Characters 0-7 valid
+
+   * - 16 (hexadecimal)
+     - ``0x7B``
+     - Leading "0x"
+     - Characters 0-9, A-F (or a-f) valid
+
+Binary constants (like ``B1111011``) for values between 0 and 255 are
+supported for compatibility with Arduino only.  Their use in new
+programs is discouraged.
+
+.. _lang-constants-integers-dec:
+
+**Decimal** is base 10. This is the common number system we learn in
+school.  Integer literals without other prefixes are assumed to be in
+decimal format.
+
+For example, the decimal literal ``101`` is one hundred and one: 1×10\
+:sup:`2` + 0×10\ :sup:`1` + 1×10\ :sup:`0` = 101.
+
+.. _lang-constants-integers-bin:
+
+**Binary** is base two. Only characters 0 and 1 are valid.  Binary
+literals are indicated by the prefix ``0b`` (this is a :ref:`GCC
+<arm-gcc>` extension; it's not standard C++).
+
+For example, the binary literal ``0b101`` is five: 1×2\ :sup:`2` +
+0×2\ :sup:`1` + 1×2\ :sup:`0` = 5.
+
+.. _lang-constants-integers-oct:
+
+**Octal** is base eight. Only characters 0 through 7 are valid.  Octal
+literals are indicated by the prefix ``0``.
+
+For example, the octal literal ``0101`` is sixty five: 1×8\ :sup:`2` +
+0×8\ :sup:`1` + 1×8\ :sup:`0` = 65.
+
+.. warning:: Bugs sometimes result by (unintentionally) including a
+   leading "0" before an integer literal, which makes the compiler
+   interpret it in octal.
+
+.. _lang-constants-integers-hex:
+
+**Hexadecimal** (or "hex") is base sixteen. Valid characters are 0
+through 9 and letters A through F; A has the value 10, B is 11, up to
+F, which is 15. Hex values are indicated by the prefix ``0x``.  A-F
+may be typed in upper or lower case (a-f).
+
+For example, the hexadecimal literal ``0x101`` is two hundred fifty
+seven: 1×16\ :sup:`2` + 0×16\ :sup:`1` + 1×16\ :sup:`0` = 257.
+
+The hexadecimal literal ``0xCF2`` is three thousand, three hundred
+fourteen: 12×16\ :sup:`2` + 15×16\ :sup:`1` + 2×16\ :sup:`0` = 3314.
+
+(Remember that in hex, ``A`` means 10, and counting up, ``B``\ =11, so
+``C``\ =12 and ``F``\ =15).
+
+.. _lang-constants-integers-u-l:
+
+U and L Suffixes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+By default, an integer constant is treated as an :ref:`int
+<lang-int>`, with the attendant :ref:`limitations in values
+<lang-int-overflow>`. To specify an integer constant with another data
+type, follow it with:
+
+- a ``u`` or ``U`` to interpret the constant as an unsigned value.
+  For example, ``33U`` is an :ref:`unsigned int <lang-unsignedint>`.
+
+- an ``l`` or ``L`` to interpret the constant as a long value.  For
+  example, ``100000L`` is a :ref:`long <lang-long>`.
+
+- a ``ul`` or ``UL`` to do both.  For example, ``32767UL`` is an
+  :ref:`unsigned long <lang-unsignedlong>`.
+
+.. _lang-constants-fp:
+
+Floating-Point Constants
+------------------------
+
+Similar to integer literals, floating point constants (properly:
+floating-point *literals*) are used to make code more readable.
+Floating point literals are swapped at compile time for the value to
+which the expression evaluates.
+
+A floating point literal is any number which includes a decimal point.
+For instance, ``3.0`` is a floating-point literal for the number 3.
+By default, a floating-point literal is a :ref:`double <lang-double>`.
+In order for the literal to be interpreted as a :ref:`float
+<lang-float>`, you can write ``f`` directly after it.  For example,
+``3.0f`` is a floating-point literal with type ``float``.
+
+Floating point constants can also be expressed in a variety of
+scientific notation. ``E`` and ``e`` are both accepted as valid
+exponent indicators.  Some examples are given in the following table:
+
+
+.. list-table::
+   :header-rows: 1
+
+   * - Floating-point literal
+     - Evaluates to
+     - Alternate expression
+
+   * - ``10.0``
+     - 10
+     -
+
+   * - ``2.34E5``
+     - 2.34×10\ :sup:`5`
+     - ``234000.0``
+
+   * - ``67e-12``
+     - 67.0×10\ :sup:`-12`
+     - ``0.000000000067``
+
+See Also
+--------
+
+- :ref:`pinMode() <lang-pinmode>`
+- :ref:`Boolean Variables <lang-booleanvariables>`
+- :ref:`#define <lang-define>`
+- :ref:`int <lang-int>`
+- :ref:`unsigned int <lang-unsignedint>`
+- :ref:`long <lang-long>`
+- :ref:`unsigned long <lang-unsignedlong>`
+- :ref:`float <lang-float>`
+- :ref:`double <lang-double>`
+
+.. include:: cc-attribution.txt